336 H U F H U G was placed at the head of the medical college and generally of state medical affairs in Berlin, with the title of privy councillor. He filled the chair of pathology and thera peutics in the university of Berlin, founded in 1809, and in 1810 became councillor of state. He died at Berlin in 1836. Hufeland is celebrated as the most eminent practical physician of his time in Germany, and as the author of numerous works display ing extensive reading and cultivated and critical faculty. The most widely known of his many writings is the treatise entitled Makrobiotik, oder die Kunst das mcnschlic.Jtc Lcbcn zu vcrlanyern, 1796. Of his practical works, all of the kind which cannot long retain their place in the literature of special science, the System of Practical. Medicine ("System der praktischen Heilkunde," 3 vols. , 1828) is the most elaborate. By medical writers Hufeland s ser vices in promoting and elevating the study of the art of medicine are highly extolled. His autobiography was published in 1863. Sketches of his life and labours appeared shortly after his death by Augustin and Stourdza, 1837. HUFELAND, GOTTLIEB (1760-1817), a distinguished writer on political economy and law, was born at Dautzic on 19th October 1760. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and completed his university studies at Leipsic and Gottingen. He graduated at Jena, and in 1 788 was there appointed to an extraordinary professorship. Five years later he was made ordinary professor. His lec tures on natural law, in which he developed with great acuteness and skill the formal principles of the Kantian theory of legislation, attracted a large audience, and contri buted to raise to its height the fame of the university of Jena, then unusually rich in able teachers. In 1803, after the secession of many of his colleagues from Jena, Hufe land accepted a call to Wiirzburg, from which, after but a brief tenure of a professorial chair, he proceeded to Lands- hut. From 1808 to 1 SI 2 he acted as burgomaster in his native town of Dantzic. Returning to Landshut, he lived there till 1816, when he was invited to Halle, where he died in February 1817. Hufeland s works on the theory of legislation Essay upon the Fundamental Theorem of Natural Law (" Versuch iiber die Grnnd- satz Naturrechts," 1785), Handbook of Natural Law ("Lehrbuch des Naturrechts," 1790), Institutes of Positive Law (" Institutionen des gesammten positiven Kechts, " 1798), and History and System of German Positive Law (" Lehrbuch der Geschichte und Encyclo- padie aller" in Deutschland geltenden positiven Rechte," 1790) are distinguished by precision of statement and clearness of deduc tion. They form on the whole the best commentary upon Kant s Rcchtslehrc, the principles of which they carry out in detail, and apply to the discussion of positive laws. In political economy Hufeland s chief work is the Nciu Foundation of National Economy ("Neue Grnndlegung der Staatswirthschaftskunst," 2 vols., 1807 and 1813), the second volume of which lias the special title, Tlicory of Money and Circulation ("Lehre vom Gelde und Geld- umlaufe"). The principles of this work are for the most part those of the Wealth of Nations, which were then beginning to be accepted and developed in Germany ; but both in his treatment of fundamental notions, such as economic good and value, and in details, such as the theory of money, Hufeland s treatment has a certain originality. Two points in particular seem deserving of notice. Hufeland was the first among German economists to point out the profit of the entrepreneur as a distinct species of revenue with laws peculiar to itself. He also tends towards, though he does not explicitly state, the view that rent is a general term applicable to all payments resulting from differences of degree among productive forces of the same order. Thus the superior gain of a specially gifted workman or specially skilled employer is in time assimilated to the payment for a natural agency of more than the minimum efficiency. See lioscher, Geschichte der National- okonomik in Deutschland, pp. 654-662. HUG, JOHANN LEONHAUD (1765-1846), Roman Catho lic theologian and Biblical critic, was born at Constance, where his father was a locksmith, on June 1, 1765. After passing through the gymnasium of his native town, he proceeded in 1783 to the university of Freiburg, where he became a pupil in the seminary for the training of priests, and very early distinguished himself in the departments of classical and Oriental philology as well as of Biblical exegesis and criticism. In 1787 he became superintendent of studies in the seminary, and he continued to hold this appointment until the breaking up of the establishment in 1790. In the following year he was called to the Freiburg chair of Oriental languages and Old Testament exegesis ; to the duties of this post were added in 1793 those of the professorship of New Testament exegesis. Steadily declin ing calls to Breslau, Tubingen, and (repeatedly) to Bonn, Hug continued to labour at his post in Freiburg for upwards of thirty years, varying the monotony of his work only by an occasional literary tour to Munich, Paris, or Italy. In 1827 he resigned some of his professorial work, but con tinued in active duty until in the autumn of 1845 he waa seized with a painful illness, which proved fatal on March 1 1 of the following year. Hug s earliest publication was the first instalment or "heft" of his Einleituny ; in it lie argued with much acuteness against Eichhorn in favour of the "borrowing hypothesis" of the origin of the synoptical gospels, maintaining the priority of Matthew, the present Greek text having been the original. His subsequent works were dissertations on the origin of alphabetical writing (Die Erjind- ung der Buchstabcnschrift, 1801), on the antiquity of the Codex Vaticanus (1810), and on ancient mythology (Uebcr den Mythos der alien Volker, 1812); a new interpretation of the Song of Solomon (Das hohe Lied in eincr noch wivcrsuchten Dcutung, 1813), to the effect that the lover represents King Hezekiah, while by his beloved is intended the remnant left in Israel after the deportation of the ten tribes ; and treatises on the indissoluble character of the matri monial bond (De Conjugii Christiani vinculo indissolubili commen- tatio excgetica, 1816) and on the Alexandrian version of the Penta teuch (1818). lYisEinlcitung in die Schrijtcndes Neucn Testaments, undoubtedly his most important work, was completed in 1808 (fourth German edition, 1847 ; English translations by Wait, London, 1827 ; and by Fosdick, New York ; French partial translation by Cellerier, Geneva, 1823). It is specially valuable in the portion relating to the history of the text (which up to the middle of the 3d century he holds to have been current only in a /coif}; e/c8o(m, of which recensions were afterwards made by Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop, by Lucian of Antioch, and by Origen) and in its discussion of the ancient versions. The author s intelligence and acuteness are more completely hampered by doctrinal presuppositions when he comes to treat questions relating to the history of the individual books of the New Testament canon. From 1839 to his death Hug was a regular and important contributor to the Freiburgcr Zeitschrift far Katliol. Theoloyie. HUGH, ST, OF AVALON (c. 1135-1200), bishop of Lincoln, was born of a noble family at Avalon, near Pontcharra in Burgundy, about 1135. At the age of eight he entered along with his widowed father the neighbour ing priory of canons regular at Villarbenoit, where he was ordained deacon at nineteen. Appointed not long after prior of a dependent cell, Hugh was attracted from that position by the holy reputation of the monks of the Grande Chartreuse, whose house he finally entered despite an oath to the contrary which he had given his superior. There he remained about ten years, receiving priest s orders, and rising to the important office of procurator, which brought him into contact with the outer world. The wide reputa tion for energy and tact which Hugh speedily attained penetrated to the ears of Henry II. of England, and induced that monarch to request the procurator s assistance in establishing at Witham in Somersetshire the first English Carthusian monastery. Hugh reluctantly consented to go to England, where in a short time he succeeded in over coming every obstacle, and in erecting and organizing the convent, of which he was appointed first prior. He speedily became prime favourite with Henry, who in 1186 procured his election to the see of Lincoln. Forced sorely against his will to accept this responsible post, Hugh nevertheless set himself actively and piously to discharge its important functions, although at least once a year he retired to live for a short period as a simple monk at Witham. He took little to do with political matters, maintaining as one of his chief principles that a churchman should hold no secular office. A sturdy upholder of what he believed to be right, he let neither royal nor ecclesiastical influence interfere
with his conduct, but fearlessly resisted whatever seemed to
