some willow and juniper bushes. The wild flora of Iceland is small and delicate, with bright bloom, the heaths being especially admired. Wild crowberries and bilberries are the only kind of fruit found in the island.
Animals. The only wild animal in Iceland is the fox, of which both white and blue varieties occur; they are hunted for their skins, and also because they often attack the sheep. The domestic animals are the cow, the horse, the sheep, the dog, and the cat. The cows are of a small breed, resembling English shorthorns in general, and especially Alderneys. The horses are also of a small breed, the average height being twelve hands; they are hardy and enduring; many of them are never housed, and forage for themselves as best as they can throughout the winter. They are exported to Great Britain in considerable numbers, for use in the coal mines. The sheep generally are of nearly the same size as the Scotch blackfaced sheep; they are not unfrequently seen with three or four horns. The genuine Iceland dog, with his pointed snout, short ears, curled tail, and short legs, has some resemblance to the Esquimaux dog and the Scotch collie. Reindeer were imported in the last century, but they fled to the mountains and became wild; they are now nearly extinct. There are said to be ninety different species of birds, fifty-four of them being water-fowl. The most remarkable of the birds of prey are the Icelandic falcon (Falco islandicus) and the eagle. The only game bird is the ptarmigan, which is brown in summer and white in winter. Of the water-fowl the eider duck is of the greatest importance on account of its valuable down; the killing of it is therefore forbidden by law. Immense numbers of gulls, puffins, and guillemots are seen near their breeding places on the small islands and on the cliffs round the coasts. The hooper, or whistling swan, is found in large numbers in Iceland. The sea round the coast teems with cod, haddock, holibut, and the basking shark; the fin-backed-whale and seals of various kinds are also met with, but in smaller numbers. In the lakes and rivers salmon, and trout are caught in considerable quantities.
Tillage. As no corn is grown, there is no agriculture to speak of, and only a little spade husbandry connected with the cultivation of kitchen gardens, where potatoes, turnips, and carrots are grown. The area thus under cultivation covers, according to the latest official returns, about 215 English acres throughout the island. The cultivation of the soil in Iceland can hardly indeed be said to have been at tempted; such experiments, however, as have been made, have given good hope of success. Around every farmhouse is a field called “tún,” which is but rarely enclosed or fenced. This is the only part of the land which is cultivated at all, and all that is done there is to spread dung on the top of the soil in autumn and scrape it off in spring. Even this most primitive cultivation makes the grass twenty-five to fifty per cent, better than elsewhere. The haymaking season extends from the middle of July to the 20th of September. The grass is cut with small scythes, first in the home field, and then on the uncultivated grass-lands belonging to the farms. Many of the fishermen hire themselves to the farmers during the haymaking season; and during the fishing season the farmers send their servants to the sea-coast to fish.
Livestock. According to the latest official returns the cattle in the island numbered 20,378, the horses (ponies) 31,312, and the sheep 415,339. It is obvious, however, from the quantities of wool exported that the number of sheep must be at least double that stated in the returns.
Manufactures. The manufactures are confined to spinning, weaving, and knitting the wool of the sheep. A sort of tweed, called in Icelandic “vaðmál,” is the principal clothing of the inhabitants. The spinning of the yarn is done by the women in winter, and almost every farm has an old-fashioned loom. In the north considerable quantities of jackets and stockings are knitted and exported.
Trade. The trade with Iceland is entirely in the hands of Danish traders and a few Icelanders—who mostly reside in Copenhagen. It consists almost entirely in exchange, or barter. The principal exports of the Icelanders are cod fish, about 6,000,000 ℔ annually; train oil, 9500 barrels; wool, 1,500,000 ℔; eiderdown, 7000 ℔; and feathers, 20,000 ℔. Ponies are now exported to Scotland,—about 2000 a year; and a few cargoes of live sheep have been sent over during the last two years. All bread stuffs have to be imported, as well as groceries, spirits, wines, and beer, tobacco, salt, building materials, and other items. Since 1854 the trade has been open to all nations; but any vessel trading with Iceland had to take out a sea pass at the cost of 2s. 3d. per ton down to 1879, when this duty was abolished. On the other hand, a trifling duty has been laid on spirits and tobacco.
Communication. There being no roads in the island, but merely tracks trodden down by the feet of the ponies, there are no carts nor carriages of any description. In the firths boats are chiefly used for conveying goods and passengers; but all inland communication and conveyance is by ponies. These hardy animals carry each a burden of about 200 ℔ weight, under which they walk about 25 miles a day. All travelling is also on ponies; two are considered necessary for every traveller, and on them he can make from 30 to 40 miles a day.
Divisions. Formerly Iceland was divided into four quarters, the east, the south, the west, and north. Now the north and the east are united under one governor, and the south and the west under another. The island is further divided into 18 sýslur (counties), and these again into 169 hreppur (rapes) or poor law districts. Ecclesiastically Iceland constitutes one bishopric, divided into 20 deaneries, and these again into 290 parishes.
Government. Iceland is subject to the king of Denmark. According to the constitution granted to Iceland in 1874, the king shares the legislative power with the Al-thing, an assembly of 36 members, 30 of whom are elected by household suffrage, and 6 nominated by the king. The Al-thing meets every second year, and sits in two divisions, the upper and the lower. The upper division consists of the 6 members nominated by the king and 6 elected by the representatives of the people out of their own body. The lower division consists of the remaining 24 representative members.
The secretary for Iceland, who resides in Copenhagen, is responsible to the king and the Al-thing for the maintenance of the constitution, and he submits to the king for confirmation the legislative measures proposed by the Al-thing. The king appoints a governor-general, who is resident in the island and carries on the government on the responsibility of the secretary in Copenhagen. Under the governor-general (landshöfðingi) are two under governors, one for the south and west, another for the north and east. Under these are the sheriffs (sýslumenn), who act as tax gatherers, notaries public, and judges of first instance; the sheriff has in every “hreppur” an assistant, called “hreppstjóri.” In every hreppur there is also a representative committee, consisting of from three to five members, who administer the poor laws, and look after the general concerns of the hreppur. These committees are controlled by the committees of the sýslur (county boards), and these again are under the control of the amtsráð (quarter board), consisting of three members.
Justice. The administration of justice is carried out in the first instance by the sheriffs. From the sheriff courts appeals lie to the superior court at Reykjavík, consisting of three judges. Appeals may be taken in all criminal cases and most civil cases from this court to the supreme court at Copenhagen.
