Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/166

154 I N S I N S the mouth mandibulate ; the palpi well developed ; the abdomen consisting of ten segments, with long caudal appendages. Lubhock forms three families. In some of the genera the scales form beau tiful microscopic objects ; in others they are replaced by hairs. Lepisma saccharina sometimes termed the "Silver Fish" is a familiar example of Thysanura. The genus Gampodca is especially interesting as being considered by some as the representative of the primitive form of insect, whence all others have been evolved. Bibliography. Bibliotlicctc and Annual Records : II. A. Hagen, Bibliotheca Entomologica, 2 vols., Leipsic, 18G2-3, notices all that lias been written on the sub ject up to date; "Berichte iiber die wissenschaftlichen Leistungen im Gebiete der Kntomologie," in Wiegmann s Archiv, 1835-1880 ; Zoological Record, London, 1865-1881. General Handbooks: V. Kirby and W. Spence, An Introduction to Entomology, 4 vols., 1815, 1817, and 1826, new edition in 1 vol., 1850; the latter practically includes only vols. i. and ii. of the first edition; J. 0. West-wood, An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects, 2 vols., 1839-18-10 ; H. Bur- rncister, Manual of Entomology, translated by Shucknrd, London, 1836; A. S. Packard, Guide to the Study of Insects, 6th edition, New York, 1878 ; E. Blanchard, Ilistoire des Insectes, 2 vols., Paris, 1845 ; C. E. A. Gerst ticker, Handbuch der Zoo- logie, vol. ii., Leipsic, 18G3 ; M. Girard, Les Insectes : traite dle mentaire d Ento- iitologie, Paris, 1873-1880, in progress. Geographical Distribution : A. II. Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, 2 vols., London, 1876; Id., Is/and Life, London, 1880. Economic Entomology : J. Curtis, Farm Infects, London, 1850; J. T. llatzeburg, Die Forst-Itisekten, 3 vols., Berlin, 1839-1844 ; J. H. Kal- tcnbach, Die Pft-anzenfeinde aus der Klasse der Insekte.n, Stuttgart, 1874 ; B. Altum, Forstzoologie: Insecten, 2 vols., Berlin, 1874-1875; E. L. Taschenberg, Entomologie fur Gartner mid Gartenfreunde, Leipsic, 1874 ; C. V. Rilcy, Reports on Noxious and Beneficial Insects of the State of Missouri, 6 vols., Jefferson City, 1870-1877 ; see also Kirby and Speucc, nt supra. Insects and the Fertilization of Plants: C.Darwin, On the various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects, 1802; Id., Animals and Plants under Domestica tion, 2 vols., 1808; Id., Different Forms of Flowers, 1880; J. Lubbock, British Wild Flowers in relation to Insects, 1875 ; II. Miiller, Die Befruchtung der lllume.n durch Insekten, Leipsic, 1873; Id., Alpenblumen, ihre liefruchtung durch Jnsekten and ihre Anpassungen an dieselben, Leipsic, 1881. Anatomy, Physiology, Cliem- istry, &c. : Works by Kirby and Spence, Westwood, Burmcistcr, Packard, and Blanchard, ut supra; G. Newport, article "Insecta" in Todd s Cyclopxdia of Anatomy and Physiology, 1839; R. Owen, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Inrertt-brata, 2d edition, 1855; C. T. E. von Siebold, Lehrbitcli Cter vergleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Thicre, Berlin, 1848 ; Id., A True Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, translated by W. S. Dallas, London, 1857 ; C. Gcgcnbaur, Grundriss der vergleichende Anatomie, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1877; T. II. Huxley, Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals, 1877 ; E. Brandt, articles in the IIoriB Societatis Entomologies Itossicte, St Petersburg ; F. M. I toil - four, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols., 1880 ; A. Gamgee, Physio logical Chemistry of the Animal Body,o. i., 1880. Metamorphoses : J. Lubbock, Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects, 1874 ; M. Girard, Les Metamorphoses des Insectes, Paris, 1874, and the general handbooks noticed above. Classification and Special Entomology : An analysis of the various schemes proposed by the principal systematise is to be found in the works noticed under the heading "General Handbooks," up to the date of their publication; those by Kirby and Spence, Westwood, Burmeister, Packard, and Gerstlicker are most recom mended. For a much condensed account, F. P. Pascoe s Zoological Classi fication, 2d edition, 1880, will be found useful. For information on special orders or groups of insects, reference should be made to the " Register " at the end of the second volume of Hagen s Bibliotlieca Entomologica, or to the German Berichte and the English Zoological Record. (R. M L.) INSPIRATION is the Latin equivalent of and is used to express the fact that holy men of old spake as they were moved by the Spirit of God. The idea is not exclusively Christian or Jewish ; pagans have had their inspired speakers and writers and their ideas of inspiration, and these earlier pagan notions have had their effect on some of the forms which the Christian doctrine has assumed. The classical languages contain many words and phrases expressive of this idea, e.g. 0eo<o poi(JEsch., Agam. 1150), Oeoirvevo-TOL (Plut., ii. 904 sq. ; cf. 2 Tim. iii. 15), Oeoirpo-rroi (Iliad and Odyssey, passim], IvQioi (Plato, P/ixdr. 244), yu.aivo/Mevoi, divino numine qfflati, divino spiritu instincti, inspirati, furentes. Artistic powers and poetic talents, gifts of prediction, the warmth of love, and the battle frenzy were all ascribed to the power of the god pos sessing the man inspired. And these words were taken over into Christian theological writing, and used to describe what Jewish and Christian divines have called inspiration. This transference of terms, which was unavoidable, pro duced, however, a certain confusion of thought ; for pagans and Christians meant by inspiration two different things, When a pagan described inspiration, he did so by stating the marks of the state into which the inspired person fell when the fit seized him ; a Christian theologian on the other hand was chiefly concerned with the result of inspira tion. What the inspired person said or did or commanded was of less moment to the pagan philosopher than the fact that he was possessed, that he was passive in the hands of the inspiring deity, that he was no longer himself but the god who for the moment dwelt in him and used him as he might an inanimate instrument. But in Christian theology inspiration always has to do with the belief that God has " wholly committed to writing " His reve lation, and the psychological character of the state of inspiration is of small account compared with the fact that inspiration, whatever it may be, has for its result that God s revelation has so been committed to writing that men have it permanently, fully, and in an infallibly trust worthy way. In pagan literature OeoTrvevcrros is applied primarily to men who have been possessed; in Biblical and ecclesiastical language its primary use is to denote the writings which are the result of inspiration. The words in the mouth of a pagan mean primarily the psychological state, in the mouth of a Christian they mean the charac teristics of a book or set of writings. The doctrine of inspiration in Christian theology contains very little reference to the psychological state of the persons inspired, and when it does enter into such details we may generally trace their presence back to the influence of pagan ideas or words; it has to do with the characteristics of the writings which have been inspired. In short, the problem of inspiration in Christian theology very much comes to this : In the Bible we have God s revelation wholly committed to writing ; what are we to infer from this about the Bible 1 And the varying answers given to this question form the history of the doctrine. Theology distinguishes between revelation, inspiration, and the canon of Scripture. Revelation is the objective approach of God to man, God entering into human life and history for man s salvation ; Scripture is the record of this revelation, and inspiration provides that the record is complete and trustworthy ; while the canon of Scripture gives the list of inspired writings. It does not belong to an historical article like this to describe more minutely the doctrine of inspiration or its basis in Scripture and in the Christian experience ; all that can be done here is to state as concisely as possible various answers made to the main problem involved. 1. Jewish Theologians. Our knowledge of the opinions of ancient Jewish thinkers about inspiration comes chiefly from the Apocrypha, from Josephus, and from Philo Judrcus. The writers of the Apocrypha do not give us any theory or doctrine of inspiration, but it may be easily gathered from what they say that they regarded the Scriptures of the Old Testament as the word of God, and therefore worthy of all reverence. It is in 1 Mace. xii. 9 that the expression TO. (3i(3Xta TO. dyia is first used of Old Testament books ; and it is evident that the Pentateuch or the books of the law were held in special reverence, but beyond this we do not find a doctrine of inspiration. Nor does Josephus formally state or discuss the dogma in his writings, but his language shows that he and his contem poraries believed that the Old Testament Scriptures were the word of God. The Old Testament he calls prophecy, and he declares that down to the time of Artaxerxes there was a regular succession of prophets which since then has ceased (Contra Apion., lib. i. c. 8.). It is Philo who first seeks to give a theory of inspiration, and he docs so by bringing the reflexions of Plato upon the pagan inspiration or fjiavla. to explain the Jewish doctrine. Following Plato, Philo says that inspiration is a kind of " ecstasy," and he seems to imply that the degree of inspiration is greater in proportion to the unconsciousness or at least to the passivity of the man inspired. The prophet, he says, does not speak any words of his own, he is only the instrument of God, who inspires and who speaks through him (De