Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/448

432 I S S I S S Literature. Among older books still worthy of notice for their historical influence or intrinsic merit, J. J. Scaliger s Thesaurus Tcmpomun (Leyden, 1606) and Archbishop Ussher s Annalcs Vetcris ct Novi Tcstamcnti (London, 1650-54), with the English transla tion Annals of the World (London, 1658), hold a chief place. To these may be added H. Prideaux, The Old and New Testament connected in the History of the Jews, &e. , London, 1716, 10th ed., 1749; S. Shuckford, The Sacred and Prof anc History of the World, &c. , London, 1728-37-54; Basnage, Histuire dcs Juifs, 1706, Eng lish translation by Taylor, 1708. The modern treatment of the subject begins with De Wette, whose Beitr&aezur Einlcitung (1806) brought the higher criticism, which in the hands of Eichhorn had still been purely literary, into close connexion with the historical problems. But a just conception of the order of Israel s historical development, placing the Levitical law at the close not at the outset, was first unfolded in Vatke s Biblischc Thco^ogie (1835), a book which produced no lasting impression. The next work of first-rate importance was Ewald s Gcschichte dcs V. Israel, 1843-49, 3d ed. 1864-69 (English translation of vols. i.-iv., by Martineau, 1867-71 ; of vol. v., by Glover, 1865; of the Antiquities, by Solly, 1876). In English, Ewald s view of the history has gained cur rency mainly through Dean Stanley s Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, 3 vols.. 1863-76, and his Sinai and Palestine, 1856. The influence of De Wette and Ewald continued paramount among critics in spite of Reuss, Lagarde, and Graf (Die Geschichtliclicn Biicher dcs A. T., 1866; " Zur Gesch. d. Stammes Levi," in Merx s Archiv, 1870, &c. ), till the publication of Kuenen s Gods- dicnst van Israel (2 vols., 1869-70; English translation, 1874-75); while in Germany the so-called Grafiaii theory, really Vatke s, remained unpopular up to the publication of J. Wellhausen s Gcs chichte Israels, vol. i., 1878, in which the currents starting from Ewald and Vatke may be said to meet. Among other books which deal with the Biblical period of the history the following may be named : Milman s History of the Jews, 1829-30 ; Newman s History of the Hebrew Monarchy, 1847; Lengerke s Kcnaan, 1844; Weber and Holtzmann s Gesch. dcs V. Isr., 1867; Hitzig s Geschichte, 1869, full- of paradoxes; Reuss s Histoire dcs Israelites, 1877; W. R. Smith s Old Testament in the Jewish Church, 1881. See also Duncker s Gesch. dcs Altcrthums. From a conservative or apolo- getical standpoint the subject is treated by Kurtz, Gesch. dcs A. B., 1848-55, and Hengstenberg, Gesch. dcs Eciches Gottcs u. d. A. B., 1870-71, both translated in Clark s series, and in Koehler s Lehrbuch dcr Gesch. d. A. T., 1875-77-81, to the death of Ishbosheth. For the New Testament period, as well as that of the connexion between the Old and New Testaments, Schiller s Lehrbuch dcr NTlichcn Zcitgcschichte (1874) gives an admirable summary and an exhaustive view of relevant literature. Of works of Jewish scholars the follow ing may be noted: HerzfeLl, Gcschich. dcsv. Jisraclsvon Vollendung dcs 2 len Tempcls, 1847 sg. ; Jost, Gcschichte dcr Israelitcn scit dan MoJckob&ern, 1820-47, and Gesch. dcs Jiidenthums und seiner Sckten, 1857-59; Graetz, Gcschichte dcr Judcn, 1863-77; and especially Derenbourg, Essai sur I histoire . . . de la Palestine, 1877. Monographs and books elucidating particular features of the sub ject are too numerous to be cited in detail. For the Biblical chrono logy see especially G. Smith, Assyrian Eponym Canon, 1875 ; Wellhausen in Jahrb. f. Dcut. Thcol, 1875, p. 607 sq. ; Oppert, Salomon ct ses Successcurs, 1877; Noldeke, " Chrouologie der Richterzeit," in his Untcrsuchungcn, 1867. ISSACHAR (T?BT, there is a hire, or reward"; lo-cra^ap), Jacob s ninth son, his fifth by Leah. Slightly differing explanations of the reference in the name are given in Gen. xxx. 16 and xxx. 18. The territory of the tribe (Josh, xix, 17-23) included the whole of the great plain of Esdraelon, and the hills to the east of it, the boundary in that direction extending from Tabor to the Jordan, ap parently along the deep gorge of Wady Bireh. Of the sixteen cities enumerated, the greater number has been successfully identified. (See Conder, Handbook to the Bible, p. 266, 1879, and De Saulcy in Bull de la Soc. Geoyr. de Paris, i. 209 sq., 1879.) In the rich territory of Issachar, traversed by the great commercial highway from the Mediterranean to Bethshean, were several important Canaanitish towns which had preserved their independ ence ; and, although the tribe is mentioned as having taken some part in the war of freedom under Deborah (Judg. v. 15), it is impossible to misunderstand the reference to its tributary condition in the blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 1 4, 15), or the fact that the name of this tribe is omitted from the list given in Judg. L of those who bestirred them selves against the earlier inhabitants of the country. In the " blessing upon Zebulun and Issachar " in Deut. xxxiii. 18, 19, reference is made to Carmel, their sacred moun tain, and to the trading and other advantages afforded by their seaboard. ISSIK-KUL, a large lake of Central Asia, lying in a deep basin between the Trans-Ili Ala-tau and the Tian Shan mountains, and extending from 76 10 to 78 20 E. long. The greatest length from west-south-west to east- north-east is 120 or 125 miles, and the greatest breadth 33 miles, the area being estimated at not less than 2260 square miles. The name Issik-Kul is Kirghiz for " warm lake," and, like the Chinese synonym Zhe-hai, has refer ence to the fact that the lake is never entirely frozen over. The surface is variously stated at 4475 (Semenoff) and 5300 (Golubeff) feet above the sea. Towards the east the valley strikes well in among the mountains in the direction of the Santash Pass (6650 feet), and it is traversed by two parallel streams, the Tub and the Jirgalan, which form the most important affluents of the lake. On the south the Tian Shan mountains, or, as that part of the system is locally called, the Terskei Ala-tau, do not come down so close to the shore as the mountains on the north (the Kungei Ala-tau), but leave a strip 5 to 13 miles broad. The water is too salt to be fit for drinking. Fish are remark ably abundant, especially in the bays, the principal species being carps (Cypriwu^ Oreimis, and Schizothorax}. Issik-Kul begins to appear in history in the end of the 2d cen tury. It was by this route that the tribes driven from China by the Huns found their way into the Aralo-Caspian basin. The Usuns settled on the lake and built the town of Tchi-gu, probably at the mouth of the Tub, where remains of stone buildings are said to exist below the water. Peculiar remains of the Usun sculptures quite distinct from those of the Calmucks or the Kirghiz, and articles of household furniture, such as copper kettles of great size, are some times found. The town of Tchi-gu still existed in the 5th century, but after that there is no mention of it in the Chinese historians. It is to Hwen T sang, the Buddhist pilgrim, that we are indebted for the first account of Issik-Kul based on personal observation. In the beginning of the 14th century Nestorian Christians reached the lake and founded a monastery on the northern shore, indicated in the Catalan map of 1374. Timur skirted the southern shore in the beginning of the 15th century. It was not till 1856 that the Russians made acquaintance with the district. See Petennann, Mittheiluncjen, 1858 ; Semenoff s valuable article in his Slav. Russ. Imp., which is largely has-. d on his own original materiiils ; Sewerzow. Erforschungdes Thian Schan Gebirgs-System, 1867 (Got ha, 1875). ISS01RE, chief town of an arrondissement in the depart ment of Puy-de-Dome, France, situated on the Couze, near its junction with the Allier, 20 miles S.E. of Clermont. It contains a tribunal of the first instance, a tribunal of commerce, and the usual offices appropriate to the capital of a district. The streets in the older part of the town are narrow, crooked, and dirty, but in the newer part there are several fine tree-shaded promenades, while a handsome boulevard encircles the town. The communal college, a good primary school, several religious institutions, an ancient bridge, the granite town-house, and the church of St Paul are among the most interesting buildings. The last, built on the site of an older chapel raised over the tomb of St Austremoine (Stremonius), who introduced Christianity into Issoire in the 3d century, dates from the 10th century, and affords an excellent specimen of the Roman esque style of early Auvergnese architecture. Issoire has manufactures of agricultural implements, millstones, woollens, and shoes, and trade in cattle, walnut-oil, hemp, apples, and wine. The population in 1876 was 6089. Issoire, whose name occurs in the Latin forms Icdodurum and Issiodurum, is said to have been founded by the Arverni, and in