Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/800

766 D J U G notice of the closing years of the heroine, who returned to her native place and lived to the age of one hundred and five years. Formerly the majority of interpreters were inclined to assign a strictly historical character to the foregoing narrative, although its historical, chronological, and even geographical difficulties were not overlooked; but this visw has to a large extent been superseded by that of most recent critics, who, following Buddieus, regard it as a romance written with a patriotic and moral purpose by some imperfectly informed Jew of the Maccaboean period who wished to raise the zeal of his compatriots to the G jhting point on behalf of their religion and worship against an overbearing enemy. Volkmar stands alone in treating it as a veiled account of the campaigns of Trajan and his generals against the Parthians and Jews. According to Origen the book was unknown to the Jews, and did not exist in Hebrew. The extant Greek text, however, which exists in three divergent recensions, shows unmistakable traces of a Hebrew original, even apart from certain expressions which can only be explained as ignorant mistranslations. But that original must have differed considerably from the Chaldee text which lay before Jerome, and was used by him for his new Latin version. The first express reference to Judith occurs in Clement of Rome (1 Ad Cor., cap. 55); it is cited as Scripture by Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Ambrose, and Augustine, and was recognized as canonical by the council of Carthage, and by Innocent I. of Rome. See Scliiirer, NTliclic Zcitgcsch. , and DC TTette-Schrader, Eirileitwng ; in both works full bibliographies are given. The most important commentary is that of Fritzsche in the Exegetisches Handbuch (1853). JUDSON, ADOXIRAM (1788-1850), was born at Maiden, Massachusetts, August 9, 1788. During his education at Andover theological seminary he formed the resolution to become a missionary, and in 1812 he was ordained a missionary to Burmah under the au-pices of the Congre gational Board of Foreign Missions. Having after his arrival in India adopted Baptist views, he was appointed to labour in Burmah by the American Baptist Missionary Union in 1814. His translations of the Bible into Burmese appeared in 1835, and his Burmese and English Dictionary in 1852. He died April 12,1850. Both in his literary and his missionary labours he was greatly assisted by the three ladies whom he successively married, of whom as well as of Judson biographies have been published. JUGURTHA. After the final conquest of Carthage by the Romans in 146 B.C., the larger part of the north of Africa was practically under Roman control. The so-called province, indeed, of Africa, as then constituted, was but a small strip of territory, comprising the possessions retained by Carthage during the few years previous to her downfall. It coincided with the north-eastern portion of Tunis. Around it, to the west, south, and east, was the region to which the Romans gave the name of Numidia, the country of the "Nomads," which stretched westwards to Mauretania, the river Malucha (Maluwi), which flows into the gulf of Melillah, being here roughly its boundary, and eastwards to the Great Syrtis, thus bordering on Cyrene and Egypt. We may say that Numidia corresponds with what is now Algiers, the south of Tunis, and Tripoli, including in addition a region of indefinite extent to the south. Over this extensive territory, parts of which were rich and populous, Masinissa had ruled for many years, and had rendered Rome substantial aid in her war with Carthage. On his death in 149 B.C. his sovereign power was divided under the direction of Scipio Africanus the younger, the conqueror of Carthage, between his three sons Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal. The actual government, how ever, was chiefly in the hands of an illegitimate son of Mastanabal, Jugurtha. The Numidian princes were by no means mere barbarous chiefs. Micipsa, though too weak to be a king, is said to have been imbued with a consider able tincture of Greek philosophy, and Juguiiha s father too was a man of some literary culture. Jugurtha himself had many of the qualities which command success. He was strong and active ; he had a handsome face and keen intelligence ; he was a skilful rider, and was a thorough adept in all warlike exercises. In fact, he was in many respects a very worthy grandson of Masinissa, and he inherited much of his political ability and adroitness. Micipsa was naturally rather afraid of him, and knowing his military tastes he sent him to Spain in command of a Numidian force, to serve under Scipio, who was then engaged in the war with Numantia. Jugurtha soon won Scipio s good opinion, and he became a favourite with the Roman nobles serving in the camp, some of whom put into his head the idea of making himself the sole king of Numidia, hinting that at Rome anything could be done for money. There was truth in the hint, as subsequent events proved. In 118 B.C. Micipsa died. He had thought it politic to adopt Jugurtha, and to provide by his will that he should be associated with his own two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, in the government of Numidia. Scipio had written to Micipsa a strong letter of recommendation in favour of Jugurtha ; and to Scipio, accordingly, Micipsa entrusted the execution of his will. His testamentary arrangements thus had the Roman guarantee, but they utterly failed. The princes soon quarrelled ; and Jugurtha, who was thoroughly unscrupulous, claimed the- entire kingdom. His cousin Hiempsal he contrived to have assassinated j and Adherbal he quickly drove out of Numidia by force of arms, compelling him to take refuge in the Roman province of Africa. He had next the audacity to send envoys to Rome to defend his usurpation. Hiempsal, they were to say, had been murdered by his subjects for his cruelty, and Adherbal, who was now at Rome to get redress, had been himself the aggressor. The senate decided that Numidia was to be divided between the two princes, and the division, which was arranged under the superintendence of Roman commissioners, gave the western, the richest and most populous half of the country, to Jugurtha, while the sands and deserts of the eastern half were left to Adherbal. Jugurtha s envoys appear to have found several of the Roman nobles and senators accessible to judicious bribery. So far, however, was he from being satisfied with having secured the best of the bargain that he at once began to molest Adherbal s dominions and to provoke him to a war of self-defence. He so completely defeated him, somewhere near, it would seem, the modern Philippeville, that Adherbal sought safety in Cirta (Con- stantina), the chief town of Numidia, and a very strong fortress. Here he was besieged by Jugurtha, who, notwith standing the interposition of a Roman embassy headed by Marcus Scaurus, a leading Roman senator, ultimately forced the place to capitulate, and then treacherously massacred all the inhabitants, his cousin Adherbal among them, and a number of Italian merchants who had settled in the town. There was great wrath at Rome and throughout all Italy ; and the senate, a majority of which still clung to Jugurtha in spite of the proof they had just had of his atrocious treachery and cruelty, were persuaded in the same year, 111 B.C., on the motion of the tribune Caius Memmius, to allow a declaration of war against the Numidians. An army was despatched to Africa under the command of the newly elected consul, Calpurnius Bestia, and several of the Numidian towns voluntarily surrendered, while Bocchus, the king of Mauretania, and Jugurtha s father-in-law, offered the Romans his alliance.