Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 16.djvu/157

PREVAILING WINDS.] METEOROLOGY 147 Ballot s Law of the Winds, which may be thus expressed : the wind neither blows round the centre of lowest pressure in circles, or as tangents to the concentric isobaric curves of storms or cyclones, nor does it blow directly towards the centre ; but it takes a direction intermediate, approaching, however, more nearly to the direction and course of the circular curves than of the radii to the centre. The angle formed by a line drawn to the centre of lowest pressure from the observer s position and a line drawn in the direc tion of the wind is not a right angle, but an angle of from 60 to 80. From its importance in practical meteorology Buys Ballot s law may be stated in these two convenient forms. (1) Stand with your back to the wind, and the centre of the depression or the place where the barometer is lowest will be to your left in the northern hemisphere, and to your right in the southern hemisphere. This is the rule for sailors by which they are guided to steer with refer ence to storms. (2) Stand with the high barometer to your right and the low barometer to your left, and the wind will blow on your back, these positions in the southern hemisphere being reversed. It is in this form that the prevailing winds of any part of the globe may be worked out from the isobaric charts (figs. 14 and 17). From the all-important consequences which flow from the geographical distribution of the pressure it is evident that the regions of low and of high normal pressure must be regarded as the true poles of the prevailing winds on the earth s surface, towards which and from which the great movements of the atmosphere proceed. From the unequal distribution of land and water, and their different relations to solar and terrestrial radiation, it follows that the poles of pressure and of atmospheric movements are, just as happens with respect to the poles of temperature, very far from being coincident with the north pole. Thus during the winter months the regions to which the origin of the great prevailing winds of the northern hemisphere are to be referred are Central Asia, the region of the Rocky Mountains, and the horse latitudes of the Atlantic, and the regions towards and in upon which they flow are the low-pressure systems in the north of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the tract of low pressure within the tropics towards which the trade-winds blow. In the summer months the reversed conditions of pressure-distri bution then observed are attended with corresponding changes in the prevailing winds ; and, generally speaking, if the south polar region be excepted, the poles of highest and lowest pressure and atmospheric movements are at no time coincident with the north pole. It is this considera tion which affords the true explanation why prevailing winds at so large a proportion of stations in the northern hemisphere do not blow in the directions in which true equatorial and polar winds should blow. The causes which bring about an unequal distribution of the mass of the earth s atmosphere are mainly these two the temperature and the moisture of the atmosphere con sidered with respect to the geographical distribution of land and water. Owing to the very different relations of land and water to temperature, as already stated, the summer temperature of continents greatly exceeds that of the ocean in the same latitudes. Hence the abnormally high temperature which prevails in the interior of Asia, Africa, America, and Australia during their respective summers, in consequence of which the air, becoming speci fically lighter, ascends in enormous columns thousands of miles in diameter. On arriving at the higher regions of the atmosphere it flows over neighbouring regions where the surface temperature is lower, and thus the atmospheric pressure of the highly heated regions is diminished. Surface winds set in all round to take the place of the air removed from the continents by these ascending currents, and since these necessarily are chiefly winds from the ocean they are highly charged with aqueous vapour, by the presence of which, and by the condensation of the vapour into cloud and rain, the pressure over continents at this season is still further and very largely diminished. Air charged with vapour is specifically lighter than when without the vapour; in other words, the more vapour any given quantity of atmospheric air has in it the less is its specific gravity; and, further, the condensation of vapour in ascending air is the chief cause of the cooling effect being so much less than that which would be experienced by dry air. From these two principles, which were established by Dalton, Joule, and Sir William Thomson, it follows that the pressure of vapour in the air, and its condensation, exercise a powerful influence in diminishing the pressure. The great disturbing influences at work in the atmosphere are the forces called into play by its aqueous vapour ; and it is to these, co-operating with the forces called into play by the differences of temperature directly, that the low normal pressure of the continents during the summer is to be ascribed. The degree to which the lowering of the pressure takes place is, as was to have been expected, greatest in Asia, the largest continent, and least in Australia, the smallest continent, while in America it is intermediate. The influence of the aqueous vapour in diminishing the pressure is well seen in the belt of calms in the tropics between the north and the south trade-winds. Since these winds import into the belt of calms the vapour they have taken up from the sea on their way thither, the climate is characterized by a highly saturated atmosphere and heavy rains. Again the air in regions near the Atlantic contains much more vapour and is of a higher temperature during winter than is observed at places in the interior of con tinents in the same latitudes. It follows thus that the air over the north of the Atlantic and the regions adjoining is specifically lighter than in the regions which surround them. We have here therefore the physical conditions of an ascending current ; and it is plain that the strength of this current will not merely be kept up but increased by the condensations of the vapour into cloud and rain which take place within it, by which a higher temperature and a greater specific lightness are maintained at the surface of the earth and at various heights in the atmosphere than exist over surrounding regions at the same heights. Accordingly it is seen from the winter isobars that an enormous diminution of pressure occurs over these regions, and also over the north of the Pacific and the Antarctic, as compared with the continents. Since, on the other hand, dry and cold air is specifically heavy, the winter isobars show that where temperature is low and the air very dry pressure is high. Of this Asia and North America are striking examples during December, January, and February, and Australia, South Africa, and South America during June, July, and August. Since vast volumes of air are thus poured into the region where pressure is low without increasing that pressure, and vast volumes flow out of the region where pressure is high without diminishing that pressure, it necessarily follows that the volumes of air poured into the region of low normal pressure do not accumulate over that region, but must somehow escape away into other regions, and that the volumes of air which flow out from the region of high normal pressure must have their place supplied by fresh accessions of air poured in from above. That the same law of relation observed between sea-level pressures and surface winds obtains between pressures at different heights and winds at the same heights is simply a necessary

inference. We are therefore justified in expecting that