Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 17.djvu/357

NEPAL 343 numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs station is established, and the taxes are collected by a tlrikadar, or farmer. The Newars also carry on the trade with Tibet, through a colony which has been for many years established at Lhasa. There are two principal routes to Tibet. One of these runs north-east from Katlimaudu to the frontier-station of Kiiti or Nilam, crossing the Himalayan range at a height of 14,000 feet ; the other passes out of the valley at the north-west corner, and runs at first upwards along the main branch of the Gandak, crossing the Himalayas, near Kirong, at a height of 9000 feet. All goods on these routes are carried on men s backs, except the salt, &c., carried in bags by the Bhotiya sheep and goats. The principal imports from Hindu stan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and velvets, hardware, cutlery, beads, jewels, coral, saddlery, shoes, guns, gun powder, vermilion, indigo, lac, tea, betel-nut, spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, oils, sheet copper, goats, cattle, buffaloes ; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks tails, tea, woollen cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, honey, wax, sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold. The exports to Hindustan include wax, paper-plant, musk, yaks tails, medicines, cardamoms, borax, sul phate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants, hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, ghee, oil seeds, red chillies, madder, potatoes, oranges ; and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls, spices, betel- nut, copper pots, iron pots, and hardware. To estimate the exact value of such an extensive trade, passing through so many channels, is almost impossible, especially as the Nepalese are utterly regardless of statistics. Recent estimates, however, value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces at 1,686,000 annually ; and the value of those to and from Tibet is probably at least half that amount. Duties are levied on exports and imports, which will be noticed under the head of revenue. Mann- The Newars are skilful workmen. Their bricks are excellent, and factures. so also is their pottery, for which certain towns are famous, such as Themi and Noakote. As carpenters they excel, though the use of the large saw is still unknown, and planks are cut with chisel and mallet. Some of the wood carvings on the temples and large houses are most artistic in design and bold in execution, though unfortunately they are too often of a most obscene character. The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plants (Daphne], bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornaments of gold and silver. Coinage. At one time Nepal supplied Tibet with its silver coinage, but this was abandoned on account of the adulterations introduced by the Nepalese. The ancient coins, specimens of which are still to be met with, were made by hand. 1 The modern coinage is struck by machinery, a regular mint having been established by Sir Jung Bahadur at Kathmandu. Gold. Silver. Copper. Nepalese Names. Value in Anglo-Indian Coin. Nepalese Names. Value in Anglo-Indian Coin. Nepalese Names. Value in Anglo-Indian Coin. R. A. P. R. A. P. R. A. P. AshrafI . pane Suka 20 850 428 Rupi Mohar Suka 13 4 068 034 Paisii Dam 002 O.J Suki 214 Suki 018 Ana 108 Ana 10 Dam 042 Dam 005 Govern ment. The gold coinage and the silver rupee are seldom seen, the ordinary currency consisting of the copper dams and paisa, and the m5har or half rupee. Besides the machine-made paisa two other kinds are in general use. One, the Bhutwaliya paisa, is made at Teusan in the Palpa district, and consists of a square lump of pure copper with a rough stamp on it. The other, the Lohiya paisa, is also a rough square lump of copper, but is much adulterated with iron. It is chiefly used in the eastern districts. The total coinage in 1875-76 was silver mohars, Rs. 214,000; Bhutwaliya paisa, Rs. 186,000 ; Lohiya paisa, Rs. 43,000 ; flat paisa, Rs. 123,000. However fond the Nepalese may be of asserting their independ ence, there is no doubt that they acknowledge the supremacy of China, as they periodically send an embassy with presents to Peking. The British too have considerable influence with the Government in regard to their foreign relations ; but in all matters of domestic policy the Nepalese brook no interference, and they are most jealous of anything that has a tendency to encroach on their inde pendence. Theoretically the government of Nepjil is a pure despotism, and the raja is paramount. Practically, for the last century, all real power has been in the hands of a prime minister and his faction ; i Some of the more antique are valuable to archaeologists and historians on account of the dates and inscriptions. Specimens have been sent to the British Museum, the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, and to some Continental museums. Most of these have been examined by Mr C. Bendall, and described in his papers on the subject. and much of the modern history of the country consists of accounts of the struggles of the various factions for power. Under the prime minister there is a council, consisting of the relations of the king, the raj guru, the generals, and a few other officials known as ktijis and sirdars, which is consulted on all important business, and which forms a court of appeal for disputed cases from the courts of law. There are separate civil and criminal courts, but the distinction is not always observed, as difficult cases are often transferred from one to the other. The old savage code with its ordeals by fire and water, and its punishments by mutilation and torture, was abolished by Sir Jung Bahadur after his return from England. Treason, rebellion, and desertion in time of war are punished by death. Bribery and peculation by public servants are punished by dismissal from office, and a fine with imprisonment, the latter of which may be commuted at the rate of Rs. 5 per mensem. Murder and the killing of cows are capital offences. Manslaughter and maiming cows are punished by imprison ment for life, and other offences against the person or property by imprisonment or fine. Offences against caste are heavily punished by fine and imprisonment. In some cases all the offender s property is confiscated, and he and his family may even be sold as slaves. Slavery is an institution of the country, and all families of rank possess many slaves, who are employed in domestic and field labour. They are in general well treated, and are carefully protected by law. The price of slaves ranges from Rs. 100 to Rs. 200. There are three large prisons in the valley, one for males and two for females. The prisoners are kept in irons, and employed in public works of various sorts. They are allowed six pice per diem for subsistence at the capital, and five pice in other districts. There are no bankruptcy laws, and the liability of a debtor descends from father to son. The marriage laws are somewhat peculiar. Among the Gorkhalis of course the laws resemble those of other Hindus as regards the marriage of widows, polygamy, sati (suttee), &c. An offend ing wife is imprisoned for life, and her paramour, after his guilt has been proved before the law courts, is cut down in public by the injured husband. The culprit gets a start of a few yards and runs for his life. If he escapes he is free, but in general he is tripped up by the onlookers and his fate is certain, as the husband is entitled to strike thrice with his kukhri. Among some of the hill tribes polyandry is still practised, and the Bhotiyas seem to regard the marriage tie with perfect indifference. Among the Newars, every girl, while still an infant, is married with much ceremony to a bel fruit, which is then thrown into some sacred stream. As the fate of the fruit is un known, a Newarin is supposed never to become a widow. At the age of puberty a husband is selected, but the woman can at any moment divorce herself by placing a betel-nut under her husband s pillow and taking her departure. Adultery is therefore but slightly punished. The woman is merely divorced, and her paramour has to make good to the husband the expenses incurred at the marriage. A Newarin on the death of her husband may, if she chooses, become a sati, but the privilege is very seldom taken advantage of. The revenue of Nepal is about ninety-six lakhs of rupees, i.e., Revenue. 9,600,000. The chief sources of it are the land-tax, customs, mines, forests, and monopolies. About 10 per cent, of theterai lands, and 20 per cent, of the hill lands, are private property. Some lands were assigned by the Gorkhali rajas to Brahmans, soldiers, and others, and these are untaxed. Others, which were the gifts of the old Newar kings, pay from 4 to 8 annas per blgah. All such grants of land, however, are subjectto a heavy fine on the coronation of a new raja. Land which does not produce rice is lightly taxed, but in the valley of Nepal, and wherever rice is grown, the Government tax or rent is one half of the produce of the land. Waste lands, when brought into cultivation, are rent free for ten years, after which for five years the tax is only 4 annas per. blgah, and the cultivator receives one-tenth of the cleared land rent free for his life. A con siderable revenue in the shape of royalty is obtained from mines of copper, iron, &c. The taxes on merchandise amount to from 12 to 14 per cent, on the value of the goods carried to and from British India, and from 5 to 6 per cent, is charged on goods exported to Tibet. The revenue, when collected by the various subas, is trans mitted under an escort to the Government treasury, and at the end of the year the surplus is deposited in the Mul Dhukati, or Govern ment cellars, whence it is never withdrawn except in great emer gencies. A yearly surplus has been accumulating in this manner for many years. There are three principal eras in use in Nepal. The Samvat Calendar of Vikramaditya commences fifty-seven years before the Christian era, the Saka era of Salivahana begins seventy-eight years after the Christian era, and the Nepalese Samvat dates from October 880 A.D. The Sri-IIarsha and Kaligat eras are also sometimes used. The measurement of time is regulated by a copper vessel with a small hole in the bottom, which is floated on water and fills and sinks sixty times a day. Each time it sinks a gong or ghari is struck, in progressive numbers from dawn to noon ; after