Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 18.djvu/452

PAUL so far as to use these words : "By the grace of God, and through progressive development under trial, Christ be came God." Although Paul was excommunicated, his teaching did not remain altogether without effect in the church. It had a marked influence on Lucian, and through him on Arianism. But it is in the Christological statements of Theodore of Mopsuestia, of Diodorus, and of Theodoret that we can most clearly recognize the influence of the teaching of Paul of Samosata, Sources. Euseb., H. E., vii. 27-30. Compare also the collection rn Ronth, Rcliq. Sacr., iii. pp. 286 sq., 300 sq., 326 sq. Literature. Bernh&rdt, Gcschichtc dc-s rom. ficichcs seit dcm Tode Valerian *, pp. 170 sq., 178 sq., 306 sq. ; Hefele, Concilicngcsch. , 2d ed., p. 135 ; Lipsius, Chronologic der rom. Bischofc (1869) ; Feuerlin, DC hferesi Pauli Sam. (1741); Ehrlich, DC erroribus Pauli Sam. (1745) ; Schwab, Diss. de Pauli Sam. vita atque doctrina (1839) ; Harnack, art. " Monarchianismus," in llcalcncykl. f. Thcol. u. Kircht, 2d ed., x. p. 178 sq. (A. HA.) PAUL, the name of five popes. PAUL I., pope from 757 to 767, succeeded his brother Stephen III. on 29th May 757. His pontificate was chiefly remarkable for his close alliance with Pippin, king of France, to whom he made a present of books highly signi ficant of the intellectual poverty of the times, and for his unsuccessful endeavours to effect a reconciliation with the iconoclastic emperor of the East, Constantine Copronymus. He died on 28th June 767, and received the honour of canonization, Avhich he seems to have merited by his piety and virtues. His successor was Stephen IV. PAUL II., Pietro Barbo, pope from 1464 to 1471, was born at Venice, 28th February 1418. He was on the mother s side the great-nephew of Gregory XII. and the nephew of Eugenius IV., to whose favour he owed his ele vation to the cardinalate at the early age of twenty-two. He seems, however, to have made no especial figure at the papal court until the death of Calixtus III. in 1458, when we hear of his interfering actively to protect the late pope s nephew, Pietro Luigi Borgia, from the vengeance of the Roman nobility, and escorting him safely to Civita Vecchia. Upon the death of Pius II. he was unanimously and unexpectedly elected his successor, 31st August 1464. Vain of his personal appearance, he wished to take the name of Formosus, and afterwards that of Mark in honour of the patron saint of his native city, but, being dissuaded from both, called himself Paul. He abandoned his prede cessor s projects for a crusade, which he saw to be impractic able, and made it his leading objects to preserve peace in Italy and to enhance the dignity of the papal see by a dis play of outward magnificence. He embellished the costume of the cardinals, collected jewels for his own adornment, entertained the Roman people with shows and banquets, and introduced the sports from which the Corso takes its name to this day. If the spirit of his pontificate was secular, its administration was in general prosperous, and no serious reproach would rest upon his memory but for his violent persecution of the humanists and scholars who adorned his court, the truth respecting which it is exceed ingly difficult to discover. Whether actuated by a per ception of the incompatibility between Renaissance culture and traditional Christianity, or by a panic fear of imaginary conspiracies against his own person, he appears to have acted with much arbitrary severity, and to have exhibited himself in the unamiable light of a comparatively illiterate man persecuting letters and learning. At the same time, his severities have been without doubt considerably ex aggerated by the sufferers, from whom our knowledge of them is almost entirely derived, and his own official acts and documents give a much more favourable view of his character, confirmed by the tranquillity of Italy in his day. He was undoubtedly not a man of qiiick parts or enlarged views, but he must have possessed considerable administra tive ability, and his lavish ostentation, not in itself wholly impolitic, was frequently accompanied by displays of charity and munificence. He died very suddenly, probably of apoplexy, on 28th July 1471. The inventory of his per sonal effects, recently published by M. Eugene Miintz, is a valuable document for the history of art. He was suc ceeded by Sixtus IV. PAUL III., Alessandro Farnese, pope from 1534 to 1549, was born 28th February 1468, of an ancient and noble Roman family. He received an excellent education, but his youth was dissolute and stormy, and he owed his promotion to the cardinalate (September 1493) to the ad miration of Alexander VI. for his beautiful sister Giulia, whence he was derisively nicknamed Cardinal Petticoat. He soon showed himself, however, to be a man of ability and character, and his reputation and influence went on steadily increasing until, upon the death of Clement VII., being at the time senior cardinal of the sacred college, he was unanimously elected pope after a conclave of only two days, having been in a manner nominated by his prede cessor (13th October 1534). Succeeding the most unfortunate of the popes, at the most critical period in the history of the church, the part assigned to Paul III. was one of no common difficulty. But he also possessed no common qualifications, prudence increased and vigour tempered by age, learning, modera tion, and a prolonged experience of affairs. It was his misfortune to be not altogether a man of his own day : deeply penetrated with the ambitious, luxurious, and secular spirit of the Renaissance, he found it difficult to adapt himself personally to the changed circumstances of the times by entering into the Catholic Puritanism which, however disagreeable to a man of taste and refinement, was an indispensable necessity in combating the Reforma tion. The want was in a manner supplied by the men whom, conscious perhaps of his own deficiencies, he called around him. No pope has made so many distinguished cardinals, and his promotions included both men of evan gelical piety inclined to the new doctrines like Contarini, and fanatical devotees of the old system like Caraffa. The latter group, though Paul had probably little personal inclination for them, triumphed in his councils. The bull instituting the order of the Jesuits (1540) marks the commencement of the Roman counter-reformation ; two years afterwards the Roman Inquisition was established, Contarini died with strong suspicions of poison, Ochino was hunted from Italy, and a persecution broke out which soon exterminated Protestantism inside the Alps. Another memorable measure extorted from Paul by the necessities of his position was the convocation of the council of Trent in 1545; but he soon found means to suspend ils sittings, which were not resumed for many years. His brief condemning slavery (1537) ranks among the most honourable actions of his reign. As a politician Paul con tinually strove to trim between Charles V. and Francis I., and to preserve the peace of Italy as far as compatible with his darling aim of procuring an establishment for his natural son. All these objects were accomplished. Paul s contemporaries respected and courted him, Italy in general enjoyed tranquillity, and the monster who brought such disgrace upon him acquired the principalities of Parma and Piacenza. After, however, the murder of this unworthy son, the ingratitude of his grandsons broke Paul s heart, and, overcome by a sudden fit of passion, he expired on 10th November 1549, enjoying the rare distinction of being one of the very few popes who have died lamented by their subjects. His character Avas in many respects a very fine one, but in every respect the character of a prince and a scholar, not of an ecclesiastic. He was a munificent