POLYNESIA 425 under the nominal control of the recognized head of the clan or section for the time being. Changes have been made in many islands in this respect ; but there can be little reason to doubt that the joint ownership of property in clans was common among the entire race in former times. In early times the head of each clan was supreme among his own people, but in all matters he had associated with him the principal men or heads of families in the clan. Their united authority extended over all the members and the possessions of the clan, and they were independent of every other clan. There are in some places vestiges of this primitive state of society still remain ing ; the transition to a limited or to a despotic monarchy may be traced by means of the ancient legends in some islands, and in others it is a matter of recent history. One clan being more numerous and stronger than another, and its chief being ambitious, it is easy to see how by conquering a neighbouring clan he increased the importance of his clan and extended his own power. In some of the islands this transition process has hardly yet developed into an absolute monarchy. We may even see two or three stages of the progress. In one instance a certain clan has the right to nominate the principal chief over an entire district ; though it is known as the ruling clan, its rule is mainly confined to this nomination, and to decision for or against war. In all other respects the district en joys the privilege of self-government. In another case the nominal king over a district, or over an entire island, can be elected only from among the members of a certain clan, the monarchy being elective within that alone ; but this king has little authority. In. other cases a more despotic monarch} 7 has grown tip the prowess of one man leading to the subjugation of other clans. Even in this case the chiefs or heads of clans sometimes still hold their property and rule over their own people, only rendering a kind of feudal service and paying tribute to the king. The Sawaioris are exceedingly fond of rank and of titles. Much deference is paid to chiefs and to persons of rank ; and special terms are generally employed in addressing these. Every part of a chief s body and all his belongings have names different from those employed for common people. The grade of rank which a person occupies will often be indicated by the language in which he is addressed. Thus, in Samoa there are four diiferent terms for to come: suit is for a common man ; maliy, mai is a respectful term for a person without a title ; susu mai for a titled chief ; and afio mai for a member of the royal family. In addressing chiefs, or others to whom one wishes to be respectful, the singular number of the personal pronoun is rarely used ; the dual is employed instead, the dual of dignity or of respect. Offices and titles are seldom hereditary in our sense of the term, as descending from father to son. They are rather elective within the limits of the clan, or the division of a clan. A common practice is for the holder of a high title to nominate a successor ; and his nomination is generally confirmed by the chiefs, or heads of households, with whom the right of election rests. In ancient times the authority of a high chief or king did not usually extend to any details of government. But in Hawaii there are traditions of a wise king who interested himself in promoting the social well- being of the people, and made good laws for their guidance. 1 Usually all matters affecting a district or an island were settled by the chiefs of the district, while those of a single village were settled by a council consisting of the chiefs and heads of house holds in the village. In some islands each clan, or each village, would feel itself at liberty to make war on another clan or village, without consulting the views of any higher authority. Indeed the rule was for each clan or district to settle its own affairs. In the case of offences against individuals, either the person injured, or another member of his clan, would avenge the injury done. For most offences there was some generally recognized punishment such as death for murder or adultery ; but often vengeance would fall upon another person instead of the wrongdoer. In avenging wrong, a member of the village or of the clan to which the offender belonged would serve equally well to satisfy their ideas of justice if the culprit himself could not be easily reached. Sometimes all the members of the family, or of a village, to which a culprit belonged would ilee from their homes and take refuge in another village, or seek the protection of a powerful chief. In some places, in cases of crime, the members of the family or village would convey the culprit bound sometimes even carrying him like a pig that is to be killed and place him with apologies before those against whom he had transgressed. The ignominy of such a proceeding was generally considered sufficient atonement for the gravest offences. There were slaves in many islands, either persons conquered in war, or those who had been condemned to loae their personal liberty on account of evil conduct. Pottery was not manufactured by the Sawaioris. When any of them possessed it they obtained it from the Papuans. In most of their manufactures they were, however, in advance of the Papuans. They made use of the vegetable fibres abounding in the islands, the 1 See a remarkable example iu Fornunder s Polynesian Race, vol. ii. p. 89. women manufacturing cloth, chiefly from the bark of the paper mulberry (Morus papyrifcra), but also in some islands from the bark of the bread-fruit tree, and the hibiscus. This in former times furnished them with most of their clothing. They also made various kinds of mats, baskets, and fans from the leaves of the pandanus, the bark of the hibiscus, from species of bohmeria or other Urticaceous plants. Some of their mats are very beauti fully made, and in some islands they are the most valuable property the people possess. The people also use the various fibre-producing plants for the manufacture of ropes, coarse string, and fine cord, and for making fishing nets. The nets are often very large, and are netted with a needle and mesh as in hand-netting among our selves. The Sawaioris are rather clever workers in wood. Canoe and house-building are trades usually confined to certain families.. The large canoes in which they formerly made long voyages are no. longer built, but various kinds of smaller canoes are made, from the commonest, which is simply a hollowed-out tree cut into form, to the finely-shaped one built upon a keel, the joints of the various pieces being nicely fitted, and the whole stitched together with cord made from the husk of cocoa-nuts. Some of the larger canoes are ornamented with rude carving ; and in some islands they are somewhat elaborately decorated with inlaid mother of pearl. The houses are generally well and elaborately made, but nearly all the ornamentation is put on the inside of the roof. The Sawaioris manufacture several wooden utensils for household use, such as dishes or deep bowls, "pillows" or head-rests, and stools. They also make wooden gongs, or drums, which they beat as they travel in their boats, in their dances, &c. They used to make wooden fishhooks, clubs, spears, and bows. They still make wooden fish- spears ; also carved and inlaid combs. They employ the bamboo for making drums and flutes. Formerly the knives the people used were made of bamboo, which is still sometimes used for that purpose. In the manufacture of these things they employed adzes, made of stone, shell, or hard wood, and a wooden drill pointed with stone, shell, or bone. They made mother-of-pearl fishhooks, and they still use a part of those old hooks or artificial bait in combination with steel hooks, the native-made portion being generally shaped like a small fish. For water vessels, &c. , they employ gourds and large cocoa-nut shells, in preparing which they put water into them and allow the pulp or the kernel to decay, so that it may be removed without breaking the rind or shell. Their drinking cups are made of half a cocoa-nut shell. Sharks teeth, shells, and bamboo were formerly generally used as cutting instruments ; shaving was done with them, as well as surgical operations. They employ vegetable dyes for painting their bark cloth, calabashes, &c. In some islands they also use a red earth for this purpose. Their cloth is generally ornamented with geometrical patterns. Any drawings of animals, &c. , which they make are exceedingly inartistic, and no attempt is made at per spective. Their musical instruments are few and rude consisting of the drums and flutes already mentioned, and shell trumpets. The Sawaioris were all polytheists. Without doubt many of their gods are deified men ; but it is clear that some are the forces of nature personified, while others appear to represent human passions which have become identified with particulai persons who have an existence in their historical myths. 2 But tlu- conception which they had of Tangaloa (Taaroa and Kaualoa in some islands) is of a higher order. Among the Tahitians he was regarded as "the first and principal god, uncreated, and existing from the beginning, or from the time he emerged from po, or the- world of darkness." 3 "He was said to be the father of all the gods, and creator of all things, yet was scarcely reckoned an object of worship." 4 Dr Turner says, " the unrestricted, or unconditioned, may fairly be regarded as the name of this Samoan Jupiter." 5 The worship of certain of the great gods was common to all the people in a group of islands. Others were gods of villages or of families, while others were gods of individuals. The gods of clans were probably the spirits of the ancestors in their own line. In some islands, when the birth of a child was expected, the aid of the gods of the family was invoked, beginning with the god of tin- father. The god prayed to at the instant of birth became the god of the child. In other places the name of the child s god was declared when the umbilical cord was severed. 1 he gods wen- supposed to dwell in various animals, in trees, or even in inanimate objects, as a stone, a shell, &c. In some islands idols bearing more or less resemblance to the human shape were made. But in all cases the material objects were regarded simply as the abodes of the immaterial spirits of the gods. Their temples were either national, for a single village, or fci- the god of a family. They were sometimes large stone enclosure s (marae), sometimes a grove, or a house. The principal priests wen* a particular order, the priesthood being hereditary. In some cases, - The following recent books may be consulted on this subject : Rev. W. W. Gill s Myths and Songs from the South Pacific; Lr Turner s Samoa; and ? r Shortland s Maori Religion and Mythology, 3 Polynesian Researches, vol. i. p. 323. 4 Tahitian Dictionary. s Samoa, p. 52.
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