The army was reorganised on something of the Prussian model, universal personal service introducing a more intelligent and more highly educated element into the ranks. The cession of her last possessions in Italy, and the independent constitution granted to Hungary, removed the principal causes of disaffection. Her regimental officers, who formerly, though gallant and loyal gentlemen, were not distinguished for study of their profession, are now subjected to tests more severe than in any other country ; while the constant renewal of the rank and file, and even of the non-commissioned officers, under the three years system, throws on them almost the whole of the arduous and ever-recurring labour of training the annual contingents of recruits. Her rigid drill has given place to one of exceptional freedom. Even the outward appearance of the army is changed ; and the gay uniforms for which Austria was once celebrated have given place to more sober and serviceable ones. Whatever may be the result of the next struggle she finds herself engaged in, none who have watched her military development will deny that she deserves success, so far as success can be earned by a frank acceptance of the lessons taught in her disasters, by honest and persevering efforts to remedy the defects laid bare, and by the loyal devotion with which the officers and the country have accepted the new and arduous
duties thrown on them.Russian Army.
Of all European powers, Russia maintains by far the largest army. In 1870 its peace establishment amounted to three-quarters of a million, and its war establishment to a million and a quarter; and when the changes which were commenced in that year have taken full effect, her available war strength will be increased to nearly two millions. But even this enormous force is not excessive when measured by the vast extent of her possessions (7,500,000 square miles), or her population (82 millions); it is calculated that a levy of 25 per cent, of the young men coming annually of age will suffice for the requirements of the army, and that military service will thus fall more lightly in Russia than in any other great nation of the Continent.
Before the recent changes the Russian army was a reflex of the social condition of the country. As in civil life there was practically no middle class, so in the army there was a wide gulf between the officer and the soldier. The officers were mainly drawn from the nobility, every young man of rank being practically compelled to serve ; the soldiers were entirely drawn from the serfs. Although every one was nominally liable to serve, numerous exemp tions were made in favour of merchants, skilled mechanics, and others whose services were accounted more valuable to the nation in their civil capacities, and the purchase of substitutes was allowed ; so that actually the recruits were drawn almost entirely from the lowest class of agri cultural labourers. Service was nominally for life, though after a certain number of years the soldier was allowed his discharge on pension. The army was recruited by an annual levy of so many per thousand of the male popula tion (usually from 4 to 6); the number of men required from each village or district being notified, and the head men and elders charged with furnishing them. The power thus placed in the hands of the small local authorities was most despotically used, and a youth who had incurred the displeasure of his superiors was surely drafted off to the army. Although the army carried with it the advantages of ultimate freedom and a pension, the time in the ranks was so long, its hardships so great, and the pay so miser ably small, that the service was very unpopular, and severe measures were necessary to prevent the recruits deserting on their way to the depots. Subsequent to the Crimean war, however, various steps were taken to improve the condition of the soldier; the term of service in the ranks, first fixed at twenty years, was reduced to fifteen, and a system of unlimited furloughs introduced, under which the soldier was sent to his home after seven or eight years service, though liable to recall if needed. The liberation of the serfs in 1861 paved the way for still further reforms, and by an imperial ukase of the 4th (16th) November 1870, the principle of universal personal liability to service was established. By the new army organisation law, every Russian is liable to service on attaining his twenty-first year. The purchase of exemption or of substitutes is pro hibited; but it seems doubtful whether this clause will be fully enforced, and hitherto the purchase of exemption at a fixed rate of 800 roubles (about 120) has been permitted. The conscription takes place annually between the 1st November and 15th December, when the number required to complete the active army (estimated at about 25 per cent, of those liable to service) are chosen by lot. The period of service is fifteen years, of which four are spent in the ranks; two years on furlough, liable to recall at any moment; and nine years in the reserves, which can only be called out in case of war or national danger. In the cavalry and horse artillery, the time with the colours is extended to five years, and that in the reserve is shortened. Those who are not drawn for the active army are put through a short course of training, and then sent to their homes ; but for six years they remain liable to be called in to replace casualties in the active army in case of war. After this they pass into the national legions, which in clude all able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 38 not actually serving in the army or navy. As in Prussia, certain advantages are given to young men of means and good education, who are allowed to shorten their period of service in the ranks. Special regulations apply to the Ukraine and provinces which furnish the Cossacks and other irregular troops.
The military resources of Russia thus consist of the active army, or men serving with the colours; the reserves, who have completed their period in the ranks, but rejoin the army in case of war; the irregular troops, or Cossacks; and the national legions, or armed levies, only called out in exceptional cases, such as invasion. The regular army is formed by the active army, completed in time of war from the reserves, and is divided into field troops and local troops, the former furnishing the armies for the field, the latter the garrisons, and the depots at which the recruits are assembled and trained, and whence the field troops are fed. The local troops, as their name implies, are per manently localised; the field troops are not, "as in Prussia, connected with certain districts, but draw their recruits indiscriminately from the whole empire, and are moved from one part to another as occasion demands.
The field troops of the regular army consist of 612 battalions of infantry, 236 squadrons of cavalry, 16 bat talions of sappers and engineers, and 306 batteries of guns and mitrailleuses. They are divided into guards and line, each having its due proportion of all arms, and are organ ised in detail as follows:—
Infantry.—The infantry consists of—
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12 Regiments of Guards (including 2 Grenadiers) of 3 battalions each. 12 Grenadiers of 3 battalions each. 4 148 12 20 Caucasus Grenadiers of 4 battalions each. the Line of 3 battalions each. Infantry, of the Caucasus of 4 battalions each. 4 Batta ions of Kifles of the Guard. Line. Caucasus and Turkestan.
