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294 R A U R A U of the question, How the disadvantages arising from the abolition of trade guilds might be removed. His memoir, greatly enlarged, was published in 1816 under the title tfcber da* Zunftwesen und die Fdgen seiner A ufhebung. He was then favourable to the continued existence of trade corporations on a reformed basis, but afterwards abandoned this view. In the same year appeared his Primx linex historic politices. In .1818 he became professor at Erlan- gen. He competed successfully in 1820 for a prize offered by the academy of Haarlem for the best essay on the causes of poverty ; and in the same year he published a transla- tion, characterized by Roscher as "free, but very good," of Storch's Cours d'conomie Politique, with notes and addi- tions of his own. In 1822 he was called to the chair of political economy at Heidelberg, where the rest of his life was spent, in the main, in teaching and research. He took some part, however, in public affairs : in 1837 he was nominated a member of the first chamber of the duchy of Baden, and did good service in that capacity ; and in 1851 he was one of the commissioners sent to England on the part of the Zollverein to study the Industrial Exhibition. A result of this mission was his account of the agricultural implements exhibited at London (Die landurirtlischaftlichen Gerdthe der Londoner Ausstellung, 1853). He was elected a corresponding member of the French Institute in 1856. After a useful and honourable career he died at Heidel- berg on 18th March 1870. His principal work is the Lehrbuch der politischen Oekonomie (1826-37), an encyclopaedia of the economic knowledge of his time, written with a special view to the guidance of practical men. The doctrines are, in the main, those of Smith and Say ; but they are treated in an independent manner, and the conclusions of his predecessors are modified, especially by giving larger scope to the action of the state. The three volumes are respectively occupied with (1) political economy, properly so called, or the theory of wealth, (2) administrative science ( Volkswirtnschaftspolitilc), and (3) finance. The two last he recognizes as necessarily admitting of variations in accordance with the special circumstances of different countries, whilst the first is more akin to the exact sciences, and is in many respects capable of being treated, or at least illustrated, mathematically. This threefold division marks his close relation to the older German cameralistic writers, with whose works he was familiarly acquainted. It is a consequence in part of his conformity to their method and his attention to administrative applications that his treatise was found peculiarly adapted for the use of the official class, and long maintained its position as their special text- book. He was the economic teacher, says Roscher, of the well- governed middle states of Germany from 1815 to 1848. The book has passed through many editions ; in that of 1870 by Adolf Wagner it was transformed into a new book. In the earlier part of his scientific life Ran tended strongly towards the relative point of view and an historical method in economics. But, though in his great work he kept clear of the exaggerated abstraction of the Ricardians and rejected some of their a priori assumptions, he never joined the historical school. To the end he occupied a somewhat indeterminate position with respect to that school ; on the whole, however, he more and more subordinated historical investigation to immediate practical in- terests, and in his economic politics moved in the direction of limiting rather than extending the sphere of state action. His general merits are thoroughness of treatment, accuracy of state- ment, and balance of judgment ; he shows much industry in the collection and skill in the utilization of statistical facts ; and his exposition is orderly and clear. Roscher finds in his earlier works a spirituel charm which disappears in the later. Besides the publications already mentioned, he was author of the following : Ueber den Luxus, 1817 ; Ansichten der Staatsurirth- schaft rn.it besonderer Beziehung auf Deutschland, 1820 ; Mallhus und Say iiber die Ursachen der jetzigen Handelsstockung, 1821 ; Grundriss der Kameralwissenschaft oder WirthschaftsleJire, 1823 ; Ueber die Kameralwissenschaft, Entwickelung ihres Wesens und ihrer Theile, 1825 ; Ueber die Landwirthschaft der Rhcinpfalz, 1830 ; an academic oration De vi naturae in rempublimm, 1831 ; and Geschichte des Pfluges, 1845. Rau founded in 1834 the Archiv der politischen Oekonomie und Polizciwissenschaft, in which he wrote a number of articles, after- wards issued in separate form : amongst them may be named those on the debt of Baden, on the accession of Baden to the Zollverein, on the crisis of the Zollverein in the summer of 1852, on the American banks, on the new English poor law, on List's national system of political economy, nnd on the minimum size of a peasant property. This enumeration will give an idea of the extent and variety of his researches. RAUCH, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1777-1857), one of the most celebrated sculptors of modern times, was born at Arolsen in the principality of Waldeck on the 2d of January 1777. The opening career of the young artist was attended with considerable difficulty, his parents being poor and unable to place him under efficient ma-in . His first instructor taught him little else than the art of sculpturing grave -stones, and Professor Ruhl of Cassel could not give him much more. A wider field of improve- ment opened up before him when he removed to Berlin in 1797 ; but poverty still hampered all his efforts. He was obliged to earn a livelihood by becoming a royal lackey, and to reserve the prosecution of his favourite art for his spare hours. The genius of Rauch, however, soon forced itself into notice and recommended him to several persons of influence who were able to 'give him assistance. Queen Louisa, surprising him one day in the act of modelling her features in wax, sent him to study at the Academy of Art. Not long afterwards, in 1804, Count Sandrecky gave him the means to complete his education at Rome, where William von Humboldt, Canova, and Thorwaldsen be- friended him. Under such patronage the young sculptor made rapid progress. Among other works, he executed bas-reliefs of Hippolytus and Phaedra, Mars and Venus wounded by Diomede, and a Child praying. In 1811 Rauch entered upon the eminent part of his career, when he was commissioned to execute a monument for Queen Louisa of Prussia. The statue, representing the queen in a sleeping posture, was placed in a mausoleum in the grounds of Charlottenburg, and procured great fame for the artist. Commissions for portraits came pouring in upon him. The consummate tact with which he seized individual characteristics and the artistic manner in which he treated them at once established his reputation. The erection of nearly all public statues came to be entrusted to him. He began to execute that long series of representa- tions of great Germans in which his genius is exhibited to full advantage. In course of time almost every important town throughout the country possessed a bust of some eminent statesman, patriot, or man of genius from his chisel. There were, among others, Bliicher at Breslau, Maximilian at Munich, Francke at Halle, Diirer at Nurem- berg, Luther at Wittenberg, and the grand -duke Paul Frederick at Schwerin. At length, in 1830, he com- menced, along with Schinkel the architect, the models for a colossal monument at Berlin to Frederick the Great. This work was inaugurated with great pomp in May 1851, and has ever since been regarded as one of the masterpieces of modern sculpture. On a granite pedestal 25 feet in height stands the colossal equestrian statue of the king. His plain pinched features and his grotesque costume are given with historical exactness without impairing the artistic effect. An air of resistless majesty ennobles the mean countenance, and a bold and skilful treatment hides the absurdity of the garb. The excellence of his master- piece was recognized throughout the world. Princes de- corated him with honours. The academies of Europe enrolled him among their members. Especially did his own sovereign and countrymen regard him with proud affection and respect. A statue of Kant for Konigsberg and a statue of Thaer for Berlin occupied his attention during some of his last years ; and he had just finished a model of Moses praying between Aaron and Hur when he was attacked by his last illness. He died on 3d December 1857. RAUMER,FRiEDRicH LUDWIG GEORG VON (1781-1873), German historian, was born at Worlitz in Anhalt on 14th