the season of the monsoons; the average annual rainfall throughout the district is less than 25 inches. Tinnevelli possesses several roads, but no canals. The South Indian Railway enters the district five miles north of Virudupatti and runs to Tuticorin (77 miles); a branch line (18 miles) connects this last town with Tinnevelli.
In 1881 the population numbered 1,699,747 (males 825,887, females 873,860), of whom 1,468,977 were Hindus, 89,767 Mohammedans, and 140,946 Christians. Tinnevelli has twelve towns with over 10,000 inhabitants each, viz., TINNEVELLI (see below); Srivilliputur, 18,256; Palamcotta, 17,964; Tuticorin, 16,281; Kulase Kharapatnam, 14,972; Sivagiri, 13,632; Viravanallur, 12,318; Kajapalayam, 12,021; Tenkasi, 11,987; Kayalpatnam, 11,806; Kalladakiirchi, 10,936; and Sivakasi, 10,833. Out of the total area of 5381 square miles 1403 are uncultivable waste. In 1885-86 cereals, chiefly rice and spiked millet or kambu, the staple food of the district, occupied 842,741 acres, pulses 192,341, oil seeds 78,127, and cotton 206,717. The total area of forest is roughly estimated at 1500 square miles. Tuticorin is the only port of any importance. The chief exports are cotton, coffee, jaggery, chillies, &c.; sheep, horses, cattle, and poultry are also sent to Ceylon. There is a considerable inland trade with Travancore. The pearl fishery on the coast is now unimportant. Coastal navigation is dangerous. In 1885-86 the total revenue of the district was 365,744, of which the land-tax yielded 305,850.
The early history of Tinnevelli is mixed up with that of Madura and Travancore. Down to 1781 it is a confused tale of anarchy and bloodshed. In that year the nawab of Arcot assigned the revenues to the East India Company, whose officers then undertook the internal administration of affairs. Several risings subsequently took place, and in 1801 the whole Carnatic, including Tinnevelli, was ceded to the British. Tinnevelli is now the most Christian district of all India, both Roman Catholic and Protestant.
TINNEVELLI, chief and largest town of the above district, is situated 112 miles from the left bank of the Tambraparni in 8° 43′ 47″ N. lat. and 77° 43′ 49″ E. long. The town was rebuilt about 1560 by Visvanatha, the founder of the Nayakkan dynasty of Madura, who erected many temples, &c., among them the great Siva temple. Tinnevelli is an active centre of Protestant missions in south India. In 1881 the population was 23,221 (10,963 males and 12,258 females).
TINTORETTO.See Robusti.
TIPPERAH, a district of British India, in the Chittagong division of the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, situated between 23° 0′ and 24° 16′ N. lat. and 90° 36′ and 91° 39′ E. long., with an area of 2491 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Maimansinh and Sylhet, on the S. by Noakhdlf, on the W. by the river Meghna, separating it from Maimansinh, Dacca, and Bakarganj, and on the E. by the state of Hill Tipperah. The district presents a continuous flat and open surface, with the exception of the isolated Lalmai range (100 feet), and is for the most part laid out in well-cultivated fields, intersected in all directions by rivers and khals (creeks), which are partially affected by the tides. In the lowlands the soil is uniformly light and sandy; but in the higher parts a deep alluvial soil alternates with bands of clay and sand. The principal rivers are the Meghna, which is navigable through out the year for boats of 4 tons burden, and the Gumti, Dakatia, and Titas, which are also navigable for craft of 4 tons for a considerable portion of their course. There are many marshes or bhils. The principal road is the grand trunk (63 miles), which traverses the district from east to west. The wild animals include elephants, tigers, leopards, wild boars, jackals, and buffaloes. The climate is mild, agreeable, and healthy.
The population of the district in 1881 was 1,519,338 (males 770,893, females 748,445); of these Hindus numbered 511,025, Mohammedans 1,007,740, and Christians 199. There are only two towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants each, viz., Comillah (13,372) and Brahmanbaria (17,438). Comillah is the chief town of the district and is situated on the south bank of the Gumti, in 23 28 N. lat. and 91 14 E. long. Rice is the staple crop of the district; wheat and barley, Indian corn and millet, pease, gram, and several other pulses are also cultivated, as well as betel-leaf and betel-nut, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c. The chief exports are rice, jute, and betelnuts; and the principal imports sugar, timber, cotton goods, cocoanut oil, bamboos, spices, salt, tobacco, &c. In 1885-86 the net revenue of the district amounted to 181,481, the land-tax contributing 102,866. Tipperah came under the East India Company in 1765; but more than a fifth of its present area was under the immediate rule of the raja of Hill Tipperah, who paid a tribute of ivory and elephants. At that time Tipperah formed part of Jalalpur; but in 1822 it was separated, and since then great changes have been made in its boundaries. With the exception of a serious raid in 1860 by the Kukis or Lushais, nothing has disturbed the peace of the district.
TIPPERARY, an inland county of Ireland, in the pro vince of Munster, is bounded N.W. by Galway, N.E. by King's county, E. by Queen's County and Kilkenny, S. by Waterford, and W. by Cork, Limerick, Clare, and Galway. Its greatest length north to south, from the confluence of the Little Brosna and the Shannon to the Knockmealdown Mountains, is 70 miles, and its greatest breadth west and east 40. The area is 1,061,731 acres, or about 1659 square miles.
The surface is extremely varied and picturesque. The Knockmealdown Mountains on the southern border (2609 feet) are principally of clay slate formation. To the north of this range are the picturesque Galtees, composed of Silurian strata overlaid by Old Red Sandstone (Galtymore 3015 feet). To the east, bordering Kilkenny, are the Slieveardagh Hills, composed of coalstone shales and sand stones, and near Templemore the Devil's Bit Mountains, with a curious gap on the summit. In the north-west there is a Silurian and sandstone group (Keeper Hill 2265 feet). The greater part of the county is a gently undulating plain, belonging to the central Carboniferous limestone plain of Ireland. From the rich level country the rock of Cashel, also composed of limestone, rises with great boldness and abruptness. Tipperary has only one river, the Suir, which has its source in the Devil's Bit Mountains, and flows south wards by Templemore, Thurles, Caher, and Clonmel. The Nore, which also rises in the Devil's Bit Mountains, soon passes into Queen's county, and the Shannon forms part of the western border. A spur of the Leinster coal-field, the most important in Ireland, runs into Tipperary, extend ing to Cashel, a distance of 20 miles with an average breadth of 5 miles. All the measures are represented. The productive portion of the field is at Killenaule. It consists of a narrow trough ranging in a north-east direction, the beds dipping towards the axis at a high angle. The coal is anthracite and the seams are thin, the workable portion being of limited extent. In the lower measures, are marine fossils, and plant impressions are numerous. Copper is obtainable at Lackamore and at Hollyford near Thurles, but only in small quantities. There is a vein of lead at Shallee, and zinc has recently been dug in consider able quantities at Silvermines on the north side of the Keeper Mountains. Manganese, malachite, galena, and barytes are also obtainable. There are slate quarries at Killaloe. Between Caher and Clonmel are extensive de posits of fine pipe -clay. The Mitch elstown stalactite caverns, discovered accidentally in 1833, attract a large number of visitors.
Agriculture.-Tipperary ranks among the best agricultural districts of Ireland. The subsoil in the lower grounds is limestone, which is overlaid by a rich calcareous loam, capable of yielding the finest crops. The centre of the county is occupied by the Golden Vale, the most fertile district in Ireland, which stretches from Cashel to the town of Limerick. On the higher districts the soil is light and thin, partaking much of the character of the clay slate and sands on which it rests. Detached portions of the Bog of Allen encroach on the north-eastern parts of the county. The total number of holdings in 1885 was 23,763, of which 14,369 were under 30 acres in extent,—4841 between 15 and 30 acres, 4444 between 5 and 15, 2861 between 1 and 5, and 2223 less than 1 acre. Of the total area 24·8 per cent, was under crops, including meadow and clover, 57·9 under grass, ·1 fallow, 2·5 plantations, 4·9 bog and marsh, 6·4 barren mountain land, and 3·4 water, roads, fences, &c. The area under corn crops decreased from 85,883 acres in 1876 to
