Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 24.djvu/813

Z A C Z A I 763 and his mental changes do not end there. He doe.* iu>t indeed say, "Back to Montesquieu; study facts, the simplest and primitive facts above all ; adopt his method, and improve upon it ; " but that is the wise spirit of some of his later works. Unfortunately he did not fulfil the promise which they contain. He had not learned to distinguish sharply between the science and the practical art of jurisprudence, and we are never certain in what capacity he speaks. He had not conceived clearly the truth that society forms one whole, that the phenomena of law at any given time or place are not acci dents but the outcome of a long train of events, that, so regarded, they are as much susceptible of scientific treatment as the facts of language, and that a treatise on botany or, still more, one on com parative philology is a better guide to what jurisprudence may yet be than a volume of Hugo or even Austin. It was made a reproach to Zachariae that he changed his opinions. He did so ; it was a .sign of his single-mindedness and restless curiosity. It is also one of the reasons why his works are now little read. They opened paths, and they were superseded by others which could not have existed without them. There is no adequate account of Zachariae and his works ; the best are Robert von Mont s Gesi hichte u. Literatur tier Staatswissenschaften (1855-58) and Charles Brocher s K. .S. Zachariee, sa Vie et ses (Euvres (1STO). (J. Alt.) ZACHARIAS, St, pope from 741 to 752, was a Greek by birth, and appears to have been on intimate terms with Gregory III., whom he succeeded (November 741). Contemporary history dwells chiefly on his great personal influence with the Lombard king Luitprand, and with his successor Raehis ; it was largely through his tact in deal ing with these princes in a variety of emergencies that the exarchate of Ravenna was rescued from becoming part of the Lombard kingdom. A correspondence, of considerable extent and of great interest, between Zacharias and St Boniface, the apostle of Germany, is still extant, and shows how great was the influence of this pope on events then passing in France and Germany : he encouraged the deposi tion of Childeric, and it was with his sanction that Boniface crowned Pippin as king of the Franks at Soissons in 752. Zacharias is stated to have remonstrated with the emperor Constantino Copronymus on the part he had taken in the iconoclastic controversy. He died 14th March 752, and was succeeded by Stephen II. ZAIRE, 1 or CONGO, designations of the river now gener ally known under the latter name (see vol. i. pi. II.) This river system occupies a large part of equatorial Africa, 1,540,000 sqraro. miles according to a probable estimate ; and in the length of its course (some 2900 miles) and the volume of its discharge (1,500,000 or at least 1,200,000 cubic feet per second) the river ranks among the most im portant in the Avorld. 3 The history of the exploration of the Congo basin is a matter of yesterday and to-day ; and in several directions the exact limits, with the relations of the affluents to the system, have still to be determined. The mouth of the river lies on the west coast of the con tinent in 6 S. lat. and 12 25 E. long. The head- waters of its most eastern stream (Malagarazi) rise only 370 miles from the Indian Ocean. The course of the main river de scribes a vast bow, the central portion of which lies as far north as 2 N. lat. To the north of the Lokinga or Mushinga Mountains, a range, reaching about 6000 feet in altitude, which sends its southward drainage to the Zambesi, lies Bangweolo (Bemba, Shuia, or Chama) Lake, at a height of 3700 feet above the sea according to Livingstone, or 4300 according to Giraud. It has a very irregular outline. Nowhere more than 18 or 20 feet deep, it is nevertheless fed by several large rivers, of which the Chambcsi or Chasi ranks first. Livingstone, who discovered the Chambesi in 1867 1 Zaire is a Portuguese corruption of a native word. It is doubtful whether Congo was first the name of the kingdom or of the river ; according to Janko (Petermann s Mittcilungen, 1888), the word prob ably means originally a "spear." Stanley called the river the Living stone ; but this designation has not become popular. - Dr Murray of the " Challenger " Expedition estimates the mean annual discharge of the Congo at 41 9 "291 cubic miles, making it in this respect only second to the Amazons (Scot. Cten;/. Muff., 1.^87). The annual rainfall of the basin lie puts at 1 213 3-1 4 cubic miles. in 10 34 S. lat., describes it -as "flooded with clear water, not more than 40 yards wide, showing abundant animal life in its waters and on its banks." Its head-streams drain the country between the south end of Lake Tangan yika and the north end of Lake Nyassa. From the south-west extremity of Lake Bangweolo issues the Luapula, which is generally regarded as the main head- stream of the Congo. It is about 20 feet deep and 200 yards wide. Our knowledge of its course is still imper fect, though from Giraud (1883) and Capello and Ivens (1884-85) we learn that it is interrupted by dangerous rapids (at Mambirima, &c.) ; and there is no doubt that it is gradually deflected northwards and is the main affluent of Lake Moero. This extensive basin is quite different from Lake Bangweolo : its southern end is situated in a low marshy plain and the difference between high and low water level is as much as the whole depth of Bang weolo. From north to south the total length is upwards of 90 miles, though during the rainy season vast additional tracts to the south are under water. Several considerable affluents fall into the lake from the east. The river has not been followed between Lake Moero and Lake Lanji ; but near the latter it is known to receive the Kamirond j from the left and the Lukugu from the right. The basin of the Tanganyika is a "vast chasm enclosed within mountain ranges or cliffs, often rising steeply from the shore and terminating in elevated plateaus," with depths of 300 or 35l> fathoms. The total length is 380 miles ; and, while the northern end narrows to about 10 miles, the width towards the centre is from 30 to 50 miles. The islands are few and unimportant, and, except at the great peninsula of TJbwari on the west coast, near the northern end of the lake, the shore line is remarkably regular. The water is perfectly fresh. Of the various settlements on Tanganyika the most important is Ujiji (4 54 S. lat. on the east coast), which formerly gave its name to the lake. " It is the terminus," in the words of Captain Hore, " of what for many years was the only safe and well-known route from the East Coast of Africa to the lake, and an important station upon a line of traffic, geographically suited and by common consent adopted as convenient, right across the continent." Another point of interest is Karema (in 6 50 S. lat , on the eastern shore), originally a station of the African Interna tional Association. A lighthouse has also been erected on Kavala Island. The connexion of Tanganyika with the system of the Congo is one of the most curious points in Central African hydrography. When Livingstone and Stanley were at Ujiji in 1871 the level of the lake was low. Between that date and 1874 it appears to have risen greatly, as Commander Cameron found that the Lukuga (mouth in 5 35 S. lat.) was acting as an overflow pipe. In 1876 Stanley obtained further proof of the increase of the lake : three palm-trees which had stood in the market place of Ujiji in 1871 were then 100 feet in the lake, and the sand beach over which he had walked with Livingstone was over 200. But his careful exa mination of the Lukuga outlet showed (curiously enough) that there was no distinct outflow from the lake, though he thought it pretty certain that the Luknga had at one time been an effluent and that it was about to resume its old function. In March 1879 Captain Hore placed a gauge on the shore at Ujiji. By the 27th of May he found the waters had fallen 2 feet, and in August 1880 they reached a point 10 feet 4 inches below the original mark. They were still subsiding in 1886. The Luknga outlet seems to be a comparatively modern formation. The portion towards Tanganyika appears to have been originally a stream flowing into the lake, all its affluents still having a lake- ward direction, while the section towards the Congo was a minor tributary of that river. At what period and by what circumstances the affluent was turned into an emissary it is hard to determine. Stanley proposed the bold theory that Tanganyika at one time consisted of two divisions, one at a higher level than the other, and that the sudden destruction of the barrier caused the lower lake to rise with such violence as to force a passage up the Lnkuga and across the ridges to the Congo. Captain Storms suggests instead that Lake Hikwa or Kikwa (discovered by Joseph Thomson in 1880), which lies 50 miles to the east of Tanganyika, was more prob ably the source of the inundation. A visit to the plain of Katawi convinced him that this must at one time have formed part of Lake Hikwa, then about three times its present size. About 12 leagues jST.N. K. of Karema he says there is a gap in the chain which sepa rates the basin of the smaller from that of the larger lake. N<>t improbably, however, no such cataclysm as that proposed by Stanley

or Storms is really necessary to account for the Lukuga pheno-