and in intense absorbing love ; but it cannot be entirely reached in this life, and remains as a hope for futurity. The mind in contemplating God has three distinct aspects, stages, or grades, the senses, giving empirical knowledge of what is without and discerning the traces (vestigia) of the divine in the world ; the reason, which examines the soul itself, the image of the divine Being ; and lastly, pure intellect (intelligentia] which, in a transcendent act, grasps the Being of the divine cause. To these three correspond the three" kinds of theology, theologia symbolica, theologia propria, and theologia mystica. Each stage is subdivided, for in contemplating the outer world we may use the senses or the imagination ; we may rise to a knowledge of God per vestigia or in vestigiis. In the first case the three great properties of physical bodies weight, number, measure, in the second the division of created things into the classes of those that have merely physical existence, those that have life, and those that have thought, irresistibly lead us to conclude the power, wisdom, and goodness of the Triune God. So in the second stage, we may ascend to the knowledge of God, per imaginem, by reason, or in imagine, by the pure understanding (intellectus} ; in the one case the triple division memory, understanding, and will, in the other the Christian virtues faith, hope, and charity leading again to the conception of a Trinity of divine qualities eternity, truth, and goodness. In the last stage we have first intelligentia, pure intellect, contemplating the essential being of God, and finding itself compelled by necessity of thought to hold absolute being as the first notion, for non-being cannot be conceived apart from being, of which it is but the privation. To this notion of absolute being, which is perfect and the greatest of all, objective existence must be ascribed. In its last and highest form of activity the mind rests in the contemplation of the infinite goodness of God, which is apprehended by means of the highest faculty, the apex mentis, or synderesis. This spark of the divine illumination is common to all forms of mysticism, but Bonaventura adds to it peculiarly Christian elements. The complete yielding up of mind and heart to God is unattainable without divine grace, and nothing renders us so fit to receive this gift as the meditative and ascetic life of the cloister. The monastic
life is the best means of grace.Bonaventura, however, is not merely a meditative thinker, whose works may form good manuals of devotion ; he is a dogmatic theologian of high rank, and on all the disputed questions of scholastic thought, such as universals, matter, the principle of individualism, or the intellectus agens, he gives weighty and well-reasoned decisions. He agrees with Albert in regarding theology as a practical science ; its truths, according to his view, are peculiarly adapted to influence the affections. He discusses very carefully the nature and meaning of the divine attributes ; considers universals to be the ideal forms pre-existing in the divine mind according to which things were shaped ; holds matter to be pure potentiality which receives individual being and determinateness from the formative power of God, acting according to the ideas ; and finally maintains that the intellectus agcns has no separate existence. On these and on many other points of scholastic philosophy the Seraphic Doctor exhibits a combination of subtilty and moderation which makes his works peculiarly valuable.
Editions of Bonaventura a works are numerous. The most com plete early edition was that in 7 vols. fo., Home, 1588-96. They nave also been published at Lyons, 7 vols., 1668, and at Venice, 14 yols., 1751, sqq. The best edition is that by A. C. Peltier, begun in 1863. Of detached works the editions and translations are very numerous. The following are perhaps the most important : Breviloqviivm ct Itinerarium Mentis ad Dcum, ed. Hefele, 3d ed., 1862 ; Theologie Seraphiquc, cxtraite ct Iraduitc dcs ceuvres de St B., by Alix, 2 vols., 1853-56. For Bonaventura s philosophy, see Erdmann, Haureau, Stb ckl ; the works on the history of mysticism by Schmid, Gorres, Helfferich, Noack, and Freger; and Ozanam, Dante et la Philosophic Catholiquc ait XIJl m Siecle. There are two mono graphs on him, Margeric (A. de), fascii sur la philosojihie de St Bonavcnturc, 1855, and HoUenberg, Studicn zu Bonaventura, 1862. Notices of his life are given in the Venice edition, and in that of Peltier ; also in the Histoire Litt. dc la France, vol. xix.
BONDU, a kingdom of Western Africa lying to the W. of Bambouk, from which it is separated by the River Faleme, between 14 and 15 N. lat., and 12 and 13 W. long. The country is an elevated plateau, with hills in the southern and central parts. These are generally unproduc tive, and covered with stunted wood ; but the lower country is fertile, and finely clothed with the baobab, the tamarind, and various valuable fruit-trees. It is traversed by beds of torrents, which flow rapidly during the rains, but are empty in the dry season. Cultivation, though it extends over only a comparatively small proportion of the whole surface, is carried on with a measure of activity. The products consist of grain (four species), rice, cotton, indigo, water-melons, cucumbers, tobacco, and fruits. The workmen in the different parts display considerable dexterity, though they employ very rude and defective tools. The people consist chiefly of Foulahs, though the country is much frequented by Mandingoes and Serawoollios for purposes of trade. The exports consist of provisions and cotton cloth manufactured in the country, and slaves and salt are imported. The caravans, bringing the former from the interior to the coast, pass usually through Bondu. The religion and laws of this country are Mahometan, though the precepts of that faith are not very rigorously observed. There are schools, however, in every town, where the Koran and the reading and writing of Arabic are taught ; but the scholar is treated as the menial servant of the teacher. The king is nearly absolute, and commands a considerable body of troops, who are much employed in predatory expeditions, chiefly for the purpose of collecting slaves. His revenues are derived from a tenth part of the produce of the land, and of the salt imported, as also from duties on goods passing through his territories, with numerous presents expected or extorted. Park, who was the first European traveller to visit the country, experienced to his cost the rapacity of the reigning prince, being obliged to give up even the coat which he wore. The royal residence was then at Fatteconda ; but when Major Gray visited Bondu it had been removed to Bulibani, a small town, with about 3000 of a population, surrounded by a strong clay wall. The population of the whole country is estimated at 1,500,000.
