practice of conveyancing is the constitution of the charter. Although modern practice has ingrafted on it other classes of deeds, to suit the exigencies of the commerce in land, such as the disposition, the assignation, &c., yet "the char ter " is the original source from which the spirit and tenor
of the whole system of conveyancing are to be acquired.CHARTER-PARTY, a written or partly written and partly printed contract, by which a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of goods on a specified voyage, or for a definite period. By the terms of this contract the owners declare the ship to be " tight, stanch, strong, and every way fitted for the voyage ;" and they are accordingly liable in damages to the merchant or charterer, if the ship be unscaworthy, or if they fail to provide her with any necessary equipment or clearances. The shipowners are further bound to have the vessel ready to receive her cargo at the stipulated time ; and they are responsible for the proper stovrage of the goods received on board. On the loading being completed, the vessel must proceed without delay to her appointed destination ; and should she un necessarily deviate from the regular course of the voyage (a proceeding which might vitiate the merchant s insurances), the owners are liable in damages to the merchant. On arrival at the port of destination the goods are to be delivered " agreeably to bills of lading," the responsibility of the shipowners in this particular being limited by the usual exception against loss or damage by " the act of God, the queen s enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation of whatever nature and kind soever." The freight payable to the ship owners is the amount specified in the charter-party, which may in certain cases be either more or less than the rates mentioned in the bills of lading, the charterer having usually the right of sub-letting the ship in part or in whole to other shippers, on terms agreed upon between themselves, which it is customary to specify in their separate bills of lading, without prejudice to the original agreement. In such cases, however, the shipowners lien on the goods for freight extends only to the amount specified in the bills of lading ; and they must look to the charterer personally for any further sum which may be due to them.
The charterer, on his part, is bound to furnish the cargo at the port of loading, and to take delivery of the same at the port of discharge within specified periods, which are usually called " laydays." He may detain the vessel for a certain fixed time beyond the stipulated laydays on payment of a specified sum as " demurrage " for each day the ship is so detained. The layd.iys commence on the ship being ready to load or to discharge, even although it may happen from the port being crowded, or from similar causes, that she cannot at the time be placed in a berth where it would be convenient or practicable for the merchant to begin these operations.
The vessel is not bound to proceed nearer to her port of loading and discharging than "she may safely get;" and this generally means that she is not bound to go nearer to a loading port than to the point from which she can safely get away again with her cargo on board. The charterer, therefore, must pay ths expense of necessary lighterage in loading or discharging, unless there be a specific agreement to the contrary.
It is usual to insert in charter-parties a clause by which the parties bind themselves to fulfil their contract under a specified sum as penalty for non -performance ; but the amount of this penalty is not the absolute limit of the damages which either party may be entitled to recover under any of the other conditions which may have been violated. See Carrier.
CHARTIER, Alain, the most distinguished Frenchman of letters during the 15th centnrv, w.s born r.t Baveux. The date of his birth is not known, but M. Vallet de Viriville places it between 1380 and 1390. After a complete course of study at the university of Paris, he is supposed to have entered the service of Charles VI., who is said to have charged him with important missions. After this, however, he is known to have followed the fortunes of Charles the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., and to have been employed by that prince, about 1420, in the triple capacity of clerk, notary, and financial secretary. He is also said to have held a prebend in the cathedral church of Notre-Dame de Paris, of which he was likewise arch-deacon, and to have been sent as envoy to the Scottish court. A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, and pronounced authentic by the biographer already cited, credits him with the enjoyment of other dignities than those referred to, and declares that he " sendormit en fin dans le Seigneur, 1 in the city of Avignon, " Van de V Incarnation, 1449."
There is some analogy between the fate of Alain Chartier and that of Ronsard. Both enjoyed an extraordinary reputation during their lives, and after death both were neglected and forgotten. Alain Chartier s lot was cast in troublous times he felt the agony of Agincourt, and witnessed the rise of the Maid but this would seem to have increased his renown. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret of Scotland, wife of that Louis the Dauphin who was afterwards to be known as Louis XL, on "la precieuse louche de laquelh sortt issus et sortis tant de Ions mots et vertiieuses sentences," authentic or not, is interesting, if only as a proof of the high degree of estimation in which the ugliest man of his day was held. Jean de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has recorded how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required daily to learn by heart passages of his Breviaire des Nobles ; Lydgate, the English rhymester, studied him ardently and affectionately ; and Clement Marot and Octavien de Saint-Gdlais, writing fifty years after his death, find many fair words for the old poet, their master and predecessor. For the last three centuries, how ever, Alain Chartier has been remembered rather on account of the kiss aforesaid than for the sake of any of the Ions mots and vertueuscs sentences that induced it. The Renais sance of 1830, even, that has made so many glories to blossom anew, has not justified again his old renown in the eyes of men. As a poet his fame has yielded to that of his contemporary, Charles of Orleans ; and even his eloquent prose, which is said to be the best part of his work, has awakened no interest whatever. In spite of this, however, Alain Chartier deserves notice as one of the most remarkable and influential men of his time. His writings, both in prose and verse, breathe an ardent spirit of patriotism, and are notable, in some instances, for a boldness of thought and freedom of idea that seem to foreshadow the great utterances of the 16th century.
Alain Chartier, who is credited with the invention of the ron deau declinatif, used all the forms of verse current at that period roundel, lay, ballad, and complaint. His best books are said to be Le livre dcs Quatre Dames, which was called forth by the battle of Agincourt, and Le Quadriloquc-Iniectif, a fine patriotic- dialogue, bearing date -1422. See Mancel, Alain Chartier, etude bibliographique ct litteraire, 8vo., Paris, 1849.
lish politics, which originated in 1838, reached its culminat ing point in 1848, and collapsed the same year; it took its name from the " People s Charter " or " National Charter," the document in which the scheme of reform was embodied. The Reform Bill of 1832 left a large class of the popula tion, especially the working-men, dissatisfied. Accordingly, in 1838, after an unsuccessful attempt to initiate a scheme of more radical reform in the House of Commons, six of
the most advanced members of the House had a consultation
