also make an attempt at fortifications, some of_ them being sur rounded by earthen or mud walls or moats; and, indeed, many soli tary farms have some species of defensive works round them, and in most cases a small, square brick tower within. These towers are rarely met with to the south of the province of Shan-tung they are jvrobably the "water castles" mentioned by the historian of the Dutch Embassy.
On the west side of the canal, at the point where the Yellow River now cuts across it, there is laid down in Chinese maps of the last century a dry channel which is described as being that of the old Yellow River. Leaving this point the canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly country west of Tung-ping Chow, through the city of Chang- kew Chin and to the east of Tung-chang Foo. At Lin-tsing- Chow it is joined at right angles by the Wei River in the midst of the city, and from thence crosses the frontier into Chih-li, and passing to the west of Till Chow and Tsang Choio joins the Peiho at Tien-tsin, after having re ceived the waters of the Ke-to River in the neighbour hood of Tsing Heen. At Tien-tsin the canal ends, and the Peiho completes the communication to the vicinity of Peking.
Another of the large rivers of China is the Han Keang, which rises in the Po-mung or Kew-lung mountains to the north of the city of Ning-keang Choiv in Shen-se. Taking a generally easterly course from its source as far as Fan-ching, it from that point takes a more southerly direction and empties itself into the Yang-tsze Keang at Han-kow, " the mouth of the Han." This river has some noticeable pecu liarities. Not the least of these is that it is very narrow at its mouth (200 feet) and grows in width as the distance from its mouth increases. Another marked feature is that the summer high-water line is for a great part of its course, from E-ching Heen to Han-kow, above the level of its banks, the result being that were it not for artificial barriers the whole of the surrounding country would be under water for a great part of the year. In the neighbourhood of Seen-taou Chin the elevation of the plain above low- water is no more than 1 foot, and in summer the river rises about 26 fest above its lowest level. To protect themselves against this inevitably recurring danger of inundations the natives have here, as elsewhere, thrown up high embank ments on both sides of the river, but at a distance from the natural banks of about 50 to 100 feet. This inter vening space is flooded every year, and by the action of the water new layers of sand and soil are deposited every sum mer, thus strengthening the embankments from season to season. In summer the river would be navigable for steamers of moderate size as far as Laou-ho Kou , which is situated 180 le above Fan-ching, but in winter it would be quite impossible to reach the latter place. The chief trading places on the Han-keang are Sha-yang Chin, Yo- Kow, Sin-Kow, Seen-taou Chin, Fan-ching, and Laou-ho Kow.
In the southern provinces the Se-keang, or Western River, is the most considerable. This river takes its rise in the prefecture of Kivang-nan Foo in Yun-nan, whence it reaches the frontier of Kwang-se at a distance of about 90 le from its source. Then trending in a north-easterly direction it forms the boundary between the two provinces for about 150 le. From this point it takes a generally south-easterly course, passing the cities of Teen Chow, Fung-e Choiv, Shang-lin Heen, Lung-gan Heen, Yung-kang Chow, and Nan-ning Foo to Yung-shun Heen. Here it makes a bend to the north-east, and continues this general direction as far as Sin-chow Foo, a distance of 800 le, where it meets and joins the waters of the Keen Keang from the north. Its course is then easterly, and after passing Woo-chow Foo it crosses the frontier into Kwang-tung, and finally empties itself into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Macao. Like the Yang-tsze Keang this river is known by various names in different parts of its course. From its source to Nan-ning Foo in Kwang-se it is called the Se-yang Keang, or River of the Western Ocean ; from Nan-ning Foo to Sin-chow Foo it is known as the Yuh-keang, or the Bending River ; and over the remainder of its course it is recognized by the name of the Se-keang or Western River. The Se-keang is navigable as far as Shaou-king, 130 miles, for vessels not drawing more than 15 feet of water, and steamers of a light draught might easily reach Woo-chow Foo, in Kwang-se, which is situated 75 miles further up. In winter the navigation for junks is difficult above Woo-chow Foo, and it is said that rapids are met with about 100 miles beyond that city.
The Feiho is a river of importance as being the high water-way to Peking. Taking its rise in the Se-shan, or Western Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of Tung-choiv, the port of Peking, and Tien-tsin, where it meets the waters of the Yun-ho, and empties itself into the Gulf of Pih-chih-li at the village of Takoo. The Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tien-tsin during the greater part of the year, but throughout the winter months, that is to say, from the end of November to the beginning of March, it is frozen up.
Lakes.—There are numerous lakes iuthe central provinces of China. The largest of these is the Tung-ting Lake in Hoo-nan, which, according to Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 le, or 266 miles, in circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known under distinct names ; thus it is said to include the Tsing-tsaou, or Green Grass Lake ; the 7?^, or Venerable Lake ; the Clilh-sha, or Red Sand Lake ; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake ; the Gan-nan, or Peaceful Southern Lake ; and the Ta-tung, or Great Deep Lake. In ancient times it went by the name of the Kew-keang Hoo, or Lake of the Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine rivers flowed into it. During the winter and spring the water is so low that the shallow portions become islands, separated by rivers such as the Seang and Yuen, and numberless streams ; but in summer, owing to the rise in the waters of the Yang-tsze Keang, the whole basin of the lake is filled. The Poyang Lake is also subject to a wide difference between high and low water, but not quite to the same extent as the Tung-ting Lake, and its landmarks are more distinctly defined. The Tai Lake, in the neighbourhood of Soo-chow Foo, is also celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surround ings. It is about 150 miles in circumference, and is dotted over with islands, on which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and voluptuous cities of Hang-choiv and Soo- chow. The boundary line between the provinces of Chc- keang and Keang-soo crosses its blue waters, and its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these lakes there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Teen- che near Yun-nan Foo, which is 40 miles long and is con nected with the Yang-tsze Keang by the Poo-to River, and the Urh-hai to the east of the city of Ta-le.
loess in the northern portion of the empire. This peculiar formation covers the province of Chih-li (with the exception of the alluvial plain), Shan-se, northern Shen-se, Kan-svh, and northern Ho-nan, constituting altogether an area of about 250,000 square miles. Loess is a solid but friable earth of a brownish-yellow colour. It spreads alike over high and low grounds, smoothing off the irregularities of the surface, and is often to be found covering the sub-soil to a depth of more than 1000 feet. It has a tendency to vertical cleavage, and wherever a river cuts into it, the loess encloses it between perpendicular cliffs, in many
places 500 feet in height. These when washed by the
