whose nephew, the crown-prince of Holland, had fallen a victim to the epidemic, and who offered a prize for the best essay on tha subject. Besides the two prize essays of MM. Jurine and Albers, many valuable treatises were written, and it is to the information thus obtained that much
of our present knowledge of this malady is due.Croup is a disease of northern climates, and of low-lying, damp, and cold localities. The exciting cause of an attack is generally exposure to cold, particularly cold winds, such as prevail in winter and spring. There appears to be in eome families a special liability to this disease, as shown in the readiness with which the children are attacked on Blight exposure. Male children appear to be more fre quently affected than female. Croup is not contagious.
The mortality from croup is very great, and it has been computed that about one-half of those in whom the attack is developed die. Its course is in general rapid, seldom exceeding three or four days. It sometimes proves fatal in less than one day, while again recovery may take place after several days severe suffering.
With respect to the treatment of croup, it may be stated that in few acute diseases are greater vigilance and more prompt and energetic measures requisite. The disease in many cases hastens on with such rapidity that as regards treatment the loss of a few hours may be fatal to the patient. In the earlier or premonitory stage, when the only symptoms present are hoarseness and some amount of croupy cough, it is essential that the child should be kept ia a warm temperature, while warm baths and medicines to promote perspiration, such as small doses of antimonial or ipecacuanha wine should be administered. The abstrac tion of blood by one or two leeches over the upper part of the breast-bone is recommended by many physi cians when the child is robust and the attack violent. When the breathing becomes embarrassed the adminis tration of emetic doses of the above-named medicines, or of the sulphate of zinc or of copper, are of great use, as in the act of vomiting portions of false membrane may be dislodged and expelled from the air passages. The child should be surrounded with an atmosphere of steam (see BRONCHITIS), and fomentations, by means of a sponge or piece of flannel dipped in hot water, applied to the neck. Abundance of liquid nutriment may be given, thirst being always present. When remedies such as those now indicated fail to afford relief, and the child threatens to die from asphyxia, the question of tracheotomy has to be con sidered as a last resource. This operation has so often succeeded in croup as to justify its being resorted to in the circumstances now described. Indeed, in the opinion of many competent authorities, more lives might be saved were the operation performed earlier in the course of the attack than is commonly the case. However this may be, it ia certain that not only are many children thus rescued from death, but even where the operation fails to accomplish this, suffering is greatly mitigated and death rendered easier.
What is known as Spasmodic Croup (synonyms, False Croup, Laryngismus stridulus, Spasm of the Glottis, Child-Crowing) bears some resemblance to the disease above described as regards its chief symptom, but differs from it entirely as to its pathology. This affection occurs mostly in young infants during dentition, and manifests itself by a sudden and violent interruption to the breathing, during which the attempts to inspire are accompanied with a noise resembling the crowing of a cock. Unlike true croup this disease is unattended with fever or inflammation of the air passages, and is a purely nervous ailment depending on the irritation of the nerves which regulate the closing of the aperture of the glottis (the upper part of the larynx). This irritation is usually of reflex origin, being due to some disturbance at some distance from the part, as teething or disorders of the stomach or bowels, all of which, as first shown by Dr Marshall Hall, have the effect of bringing on attacks of this kind. The attack is sometimes precipitated in a child liable to it by exposure to a cold wind, or by its being violently tossed in the arms of a nurse. The nervous origin of the seizure is farther proved by the fact that the child-crowing is often accompanied by marked contraction of the muscles of the fingers and toes, and also sometimes by convulsions. During the spasm all the symptoms of asphyxia are rapidly developed, and unless relief is speedily obtained death may suddenly take place. The attack often passes off with a forcible expiratory effort, after which the child lies quite exhausted. The paroxysm, however, is apt to return. Like croup, a liability to this disease may run in families, and sometimes with disastrous results. The treatment must bear reference to any causo likely to have given rise to the attack. For relief during the paroxysm efforts to make a sudden impression on the nervous system should be used, such as warm baths or cold affusion to the surface of the body. Artificial respiration ought to be tried where death threatens from asphyxia, and tracheotomy performed, if time be sufficient to mako the attempt.
(j. o. a.)
CROUSAZ, Jean Pierre de (1663-1748), professor of philosophy and mathematics, was born at Lausanne, of a noble Protestant family. He was destined by his father for the profession of arms, but his tastes were literary. Instead of joining the army, he went to study at Geneva, especially devoting himself to mathematics and the Cartesian philosophy, which he adopted. After some time spent in travelling, he returned to Lis native place, where he was successively appointed pastor, professor of philosophy, and rector of the academy. In 1724 he was called toCroningen to teach mathematics, and appointed governor to the young Prince Frederick of Hesse-Cassel. The king of Sweden also conferred upon him the title of counsellor of embassies.
His works are exceedingly voluminous, but seldom rise above mediocrity. The most important are Systems des Reflexions qui peuvent contribucr a la ncttete ct a I etendue de nos Connoissances, ou nouvcl Essai deLogique; Traitedu Bean, in which he maintains the view that beauty entirely consists of unity in diversity ; De VEdu* cation des Enfans; Examen du Traite de la Liberte de Pcnscr d An~ loine Collins ; Geometric des Ligncs et des Surfaces rcctilignes et cir culates ; Examen du Fyrrhonisme ancien ct modcrne, an attack chiefly on Bayle; CEuvres diverges; Traiti del Esprit Humain; Refle xions stir la belle Wolfienne; and an attack on the Leibnitzian theory of Pope s Essay on Man.
to the bird properly called a Rook (Corvus frugilegus), but perhaps originally peculiar to its congener, now- a-days usually distinguished as the Black or Carrion-Crow (C. corone). By ornithologists it is also used in a far wider sense, as under the title Crows, or Corrida?, is included a vast number of birds from almost all parts of the world, and this family is probably the most highly developed of the whole Class Aves. Leaving out of account the best known of these, as the Raven, Rook, Daw, Pie, and Jay, with their immediate allies, our attention will here be con fined to the Crows in general ; and then the species of the Family to which the appellation is more strictly applicable may be briefly considered. Of the limits and subdivisions of this Family it is at present desirable to speak with great caution, if not doubt. All authorities admit that it ia very extensive, and is capable of being parted into several groups, but scarcely any two agree on either head. Espe cially must reserve be exercised as regards the group Streperince, or Piping Crows, belonging to the Australian Region, and referred by some writers to the Shrikes
(Laniidce) : and the Jays too have been erected into a
