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462 REVIEWS OF BOOKS July volume dealt with only part of his theme, though this part is by no means introductory only. With the history of internationalism as a constructive and organic movement — under which aspect we have been so much occupied with it of late, while watching the progress of a new stage in its course — it is necessarily for the most part concerned chiefly by way of anticipation, or, as in the case of the Peace of Westphalia itself, by referring to merely tentative suggestions. On the other hand, it deals in full with the development of that reasoned tendency for peace among the nations — the pacifist tendency, in a word — which, in the wider and therefore nobler sense of the term, lies at the root of international law and of inter- national life. No commentary on the origin and growth of the conception of an organized movement on behalf of the peace of the world by inter- national agreement can afford to pass by the theories by which from the beginnings of western civilization to the present day pacifist theories have combated the militarist conceptions which regard war as of its nature inevi- table, illimitable, or even desirable. Thus, the earlier part of M. Lange's work, carried out under the auspices of a great and beneficent institution, interests us very specially as presenting a long chain of ideas reaching from antiquity (to which a hatred of war and a conviction of its essential injustice were far from strange, and which was even acquainted with parts of what may be called the machinery of internationalism) to our own times, when the subjection of war to international control has become an acknowledged task of civilization. But the links in this chain differ greatly in form as well as in substance, and it is precisely where, for one reason or another, they have been largely overlooked that the continuity of treatment aimed at in this work is of particular value. From this point of view, many of its readers will pass on with special interest from two excellent chapters on Christianity and its relations to the problem of the lawfulness of war — a problem which actually came to present itself to most orthodox minds as that of the heresy of anti-mili- tarism — and on the empire and the papacy, to the account which follows of the precursors of modern internationalism. The empire and the papacy had in turn witnessed the collapse of their pretensions to the sovereignty of the world, and, therefore, to the arbitership of peace and war, and the peace of God, after dwindling into the truce of God, had sunk into impotence. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the foundations of medieval society were to a great extent giving way before the gradual consolidation of the system of states ; and these general changes were accompanied by the isolated advocacy of ideas concerning unity and peace which were in advance of those of the age which was passing, or had passed away. But these precursors cannot all be called pioneers. While Dante and Marsilius of Padua were still honoured as leaders of political thought, there is no reason for supposing that the speculations of Pierre Dubois (Petrus de Bosco) received a widespread attention in his lifetime or a high reputation — such as, thanks to both French and English historical scholar- ship, they have now come to enjoy — in the period after his death. Yet his most important treatise exhibits a most remarkable advance towards the combined ideals of a federation of Christian princes and the restriction of war ; while he has no regard for the emperor as an international