figures of European powers have been challenged by us. For France has been advancing again on India from the east; while west and north, across wide deserts, and lofty mountains, and debateable boundaries, there have been the nightly bivouac and the daily march of many legions. And now the Teuton is on the look-out too.
The third stage is that in which we live to-day. It is quite incomplete, and has a long and arduous road ahead. For, having become rulers, we set ourselves next to develop the country, and restore, or create, its prosperity, thus pursuing, on the one hand, our original business object, and, on the other, fulfilling the obligations of our new governmental position.
This third stage began a little before the Mutiny, say in 1850. Before that date, material civilisation, which vitally depends on facility of communication, practically did not exist. Therefore, 1850 was roughly the initial date of India's entry into modern life, under our auspices.
More precisely, what the policy of public works then inaugurated has done, is to guard the Indian peoples against famine. Apart from the comparatively few towns, India is a mass of villages. Before our coming, these villagers, in the absence of communication and markets, could not sell their surplus crop on a good harvest; alternatively, on a bad harvest, they could not obtain food, and were at the mercy of the season. But, having established our canals, railways, and roads, our
