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DECLINE OF THE DOCTRINE OF SECRET TRADE 201 raphy, and the Antwerp map-printers published it to the world. The system of secret commerce had thus to give place to a doctrine of exclusive right founded on pri- ority of discovery. This doctrine, crudely expressed in the demarcation Bull of 1493 and elaborated by later diplomacy, gave a monopoly to the first comer. The drift of affairs in the next two centuries disclosed, however, that such national monopolies afforded no final settlement for the newly found regions of the globe. The right of discovery had to submit to modi- fications based on the plea of non-effective occupation. But from first to last, monopoly was the guiding prin- ciple the monopoly secured by secret trading, the monopoly of the Papal Bulls and treaties founded thereon, the monopoly given by the right of discovery, and the monopoly derived from that right modified by effective occupation. To this long tradition of monop- oly the English and Dutch East India Companies be- came the residuary legatees, and it profoundly influ- enced their whole history. If, during nearly a century, the Portuguese main- tained the monopoly of the Indian trade, they for a time enforced it in no grudging spirit toward other Christian nations. Beyond Lisbon to the south, indeed, all intruders were treated as pirates, and misleading reports were spread, according to the maxims of secret commerce, about the dangers of the route. But in 1500, immediately after Da Gama's discovery, the Portuguese king admitted naturalized foreigners to trade with the