Abbot left several writings which had been called forth by the controversies of the time; the principal are—"An Exposition of Jonah," 1600; "An Answer to the Citizens of Cheapside r especting the Erection of the Cross," 1600; "Dr. Hill's Reasons Unmasked," 1604; "Sermon on the Death of the Earl of Dorset," 1608; "Quæstiones Sex," 1616; "Brief Description of the Whole World," 1617; "A Treatise on Perpetual Visibility and Succession of the Church," 1624; "Judgment on Bowing at the Name of Jesus," 1632; "The Massacre in the Valtaline in Fox's Arts and Monuments."——J. B., O.
ABBOT, George, an English divine, born in 1604, author of a paraphrase of the Book of Job, a "Defence of the Christian Sabbath," and notes on the Psalms. Died in 1648.
* Abbot, Jacob, a pious and accomplished American writer, whose numerous, lucid, and attractive publications for the young have procured him great and merited popularity in this country, as well as in America, was born in 1803 at Hallowell in Maine. He was educated at Bowdoin, and at the theological seminary of Andover. A complete edition of his works was published in Glasgow in 1851, in one vol. 8vo.—E. M.
* ABBOT, John S. C., an American Congregational minister, and, like his brother Jacob Abbot, an amiable writer for the rising generation, author of a series of royal biographies, and of a history of Napoleon Bonaparte—a work admired for its easy style and graphic narrations, but censured by many as exhibiting the character and conduct of that extraordinary man under too favourable a point of view.—E. M.
ABBOT, Lemuel, an English portrait painter of some distinction, born in 1762; died in 1803.
ABBOT, Sir Maurice, youngest brother of the archbishop, a London merchant, and able director of the East India Company. He was the first person knighted by Charles I. In 1625 he was elected member of parliament for the city of London, and in 1638 became lord mayor. Died in 1640.
ABBOT, Robert, brother of the archbishop, was born in 1560, and entered Baliol college, Oxford, in 1575, of which college he was elected master in 1609. In 1612 he became regius professor of divinity, and in 1615 was promoted to the see of Salisbury. He only held the see two years; but finding his cathedral in bad repair, he carefully restored it, and left behind him the reputation of a good active bishop, a diligent preacher, and most hospitable man, at whose table the poor were as frequent and as welcome guests as the rich. He died in 1617, and was buried at Salisbury. Though he was as decided a Calvinist as his brother, he was of a far more genial temper. He was twice married; once after his elevation to the episcopate, to the great displeasure of his brother the archbishop. His numerous and masterly writings were directed against the church of Rome, and intended to show that the Reformation was simply a revival of the doctrine and discipline of the ancient catholic church.——J. B., O.
ABBOT, Robert, M.A., author of a volume of sermons, was originally of Cambridge, but was admitted at Oxford in 1607. He joined the presbyterian party at the period of the Rebellion, and became ultimately minister of St. Austin's, Watlin-street, London, and published some controversial tracts on church government, as well as a catechism, called "Lac Infantium." Died in 1653.—J. E.
ABBT, Thomas, a German author of considerable eminence and great promise, born at Ulm in 1738. After studying theology at Halle, he devoted himself to philosophy, mathematics, and literature. In 1760 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1761 ordinary professor of mathematics at Rinteln. A distaste for his professional career soon turned his attention to the study of law, and in 1765 he was appointed aulic counsellor at Būckenburg. His numerous writings on literary and moral subjects attained great popularity, and, along with those of Lessing, contributed in no small degree to the improvement of the German language and the progress of German literature. He died in 1766, at the early age of twenty-eight.—E. M.
ABDALMELEC or ABDOMELEC, an astronomer and mathematician under Caliph Almamoun. See Alis-Ibn-Isa.
ABDAS, Bishop of Susa in the fifth century, who, having in 430 destroyed a Magian sanctuary, and refused redress, was condemned to death. His execution gave rise to a persecution of the Persian christians, and a war between Persia and the Eastern empire.
* ABD-EL-KADER, an illustrious Arab emir, who displayed consummate genius, intrepidity, and perseverance, in resisting for fourteen years the French arms in Africa, was born in 1807. Algiers was taken by the French in July, 1829. Its capture, and the extinction of the Algerine central authority, threw the population of the Algerine territory into a state of anarchy, except where the French held actual possession. This territory, extending along the Mediterranean from Tunis to Morocco, is about 250 leagues in length, and from 60 to 80 in breadth. The indigenous inhabitants consisted of four distinct races. Two of these, the Moors and Jews, feeble and pacific, chiefly resided in the towns; while the Arabs and the Kabyles (the latter of whom are descendants of the ancient Numidians), energetic and warlike, occupied the mountains, valleys, and plains. The military force of the Arabs consisted mainly of cavalry, and that of the Kabyles in infantry. Part of the population requested French protection, but the greater portion stood aloof, unmistakably detesting the invaders, and planning their expulsion. In undertaking the expedition to Algiers, Charles X. had disclaimed all intention of permanent conquest, assuring his allies that his sole object was the suppression of piracy, and that the future condition of Algiers and its territory would be left to the decision of a European congress. In fact, his real object was to gratify the national vanity and supposed interests of the French, and divert their attention from political agitation. Louis Philippe, on becoming sovereign of the French, at once found the Algerian conquest a source of embarassment, and was forced to temporize. To hold it definitively might endanger the peace of Europe; while to relinquish it might peril his own throne, as public opinion in France had declared for retaining and extending the Algerian conquest at all hazards. Hence the passive attitude enjoined for several years on the French commanders in Africa; and hence the subsequent change of measures, and final definitive conquest of Algeria. Marshal Clausel, notwithstanding his instructions to remain on the defensive, deemed it imperative to meet the menacing preparations and encroachments of the bey of Tartary; and having defeated and deposed him, took possession of his capital, Medeah. In the meantime, determined hostility to the French was manifesting itself among the native tribes; an extensive confederation was formed, and a venerable Marabout, doctor of the Moslem law, was invited to put himself at its head. He declined, on account of his advanced age; but recommended his third son, Abd-el-Kader, as a person in every respect peculiarly fitted to direct the enterprise. Abd-el-Kader was elected emir and commander-in-chief, and soon found himself at the head of 10,000 cavalry. He had been carefully trained under his father's superintendence, had early distinguished himself by unrivalled proficiency in every branch of a superior Arab education, and was admired for his accomplishments, and revered for his zeal in upholding the tenets of the Moslem faith. The first movement of the confederates was an attack on Oran, in May, 1832, then in possession of the French, as its bey had submitted to them soon after the capture of Algiers. The assault, though renewed with great daring for several successive days, was unsuccessful, but proved of great advantage to the emir. Abd-el-Kader now proceeded to extend, by policy or force, his power among the tribes; while General Desmichels satisfied himself with merely occupying two advanced military positions, Arzew and Mostaganem, and shortly after, in conformity with the desire of the French government to appease the natives and prevent hostilities, entered into a treaty with Abd-el-Kader, which gave the emir the virtual sovereignty of Oran, with an entire monopoly of the trade. This treaty, on the one hand, invested the emir with an important prestige, but awakened the envy of native chieftains. By one of these he was surprised in April, 1834, and, after a most heroic resistance, signally defeated. The news of this disaster extended the insurrection, which the emir, however, abetted by General Desmichels, was soon able to suppress. The proceedings of this general were condemned at Paris, and General Trezel was sent to supersede him. The new French commander, professing to regard the emir's operations as a breach of the existing treaty, marched against him, but sustained a serious defeat at Macta, 28th June, 1835. The news of this reverse created an immense sensation at Paris. Public opinion denounced the temporizing policy of Louis Philippe, and demanded an immediate and entire change of measures in Africa.
Marshal Clausel was now sent to act against Abd-el-Kader with earnestness and vigour. He marched at once on Mascara,
