from Greek and Latin sources, of an extensive knowledge of mathematics, of astronomy, and natural sciences, according to the degree of development these had reached at that time. But he also united to such acquirements an unbridled imagination, a fanciful disposition to trace out ungrounded connections and superficial analogies, and a vain relish to play with high sounding words over unfathomed mysteries, rather than to expound methodically the part of truth he had realized.
Relying on the spirit of independence occasionally opposed by the republic of Venice to popish persecutions, he returned in an ill-advised moment to Italy, and established himself as a private teacher at Padua, where, at the request of the inquisition, the Venetian government caused him to be arrested in 1595, and given up a prey to the Roman tribunals. Having been kept for two years in the prisons of the holy office at Rome, and vainly urged to recant, he was doomed at last to be burned alive as a heretic and apostate, the sentence ending by these remarkable words, "ut quam clementissime et citra sanguinis effusionem puniretur," such being the cruelly ironical formula by which the inquisition was used to design the death at the stake. Bruno, unflinching to the last, listened fearlessly to the reading of the sentence, and boldly replied to his judges—"Majori forsitan cum timore sententiam in me dicitis, quam ego accipiam." He was executed at Rome in Campofiore on the 17th of February, 1600. A detailed account of his trial and death is to be found in a letter of Scioppius to Curr. Rittershusio (see J. Brukeri Hist. Phil., cap. de Jordano Bruno Nolano).
We cannot attempt to give here a complete outline of the philosophical system of Bruno, and must limit ourselves to some of the principal features of it. The leading spirit which pervades the whole of his works is a deep feeling of the unity and inward reality of the universe: a comprehensive conception of the two elements of philosophy—spirit and matter, God and the world—as intimately one. The blind followers of Aristotle, misunderstanding their own master, had, according to Bruno, lost hold of the true principle of philosophy, having no idea of the supreme unity of all things and of the organism of life in the universe. Matter is not in his conception a dead aggregate of atoms passively waiting for an external act of vivification, but it is the very implement and condition of life, or rather the organic process and manifestation of its evolution, which has no end. With this metaphysical theory the other one of the infinity of the universe and of the worlds is strictly connected—(see the dialogue "Dell' Infinite, Universo e Mondi," l. c.)—a subject which he treats with great acuteness against the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic assumption of the world being placed in a definite locality. Having diligently studied the system of Copernicus, Bruno embraced with enthusiasm the new doctrine, and defended it against the Peripatetics with a truly heroic devotion.
There is an intimate connection between Bruno's ontology and his moral philosophy. God being at the same time a perfect Form, a rational Cause, and an infinitely good Will, the same attributes are to be found, in due proportion, in the phenomena of the world. There is consequently, beauty and order, rationality and final tendency towards perfection in every stage of being. The soul of man is, through the same reason, a free, conscious power called upon to fulfil its own law of development in the universe. Evil and deformity, as well as death, are not real entities, or self-grounded ideas—"in aliena specie cognoscuntur, non in propria, quæ nulla est." (De umbris idearum.)
The psychology of Bruno is an emanation from his ontology. There is an inner affinity between the object and subject, between the work of God in the universe and the understanding of man. But the reflection of divine reality in the human intellect is comparatively shadowy. Man cannot reach absolute truth. He must be satisfied with images more or less imbued with the reflected light of it—umbræ idearum. The effusion of light from the central fount of being—actus primus lucis—through the substance of the universe—materia prima—and its accidental modifications, gradually weakens as it spreads farther and farther from its source.
Besides his works on metaphysical and scientific subjects, Bruno wrote moral satires, generally in the form of dialogues, and one comedy, "Il Candelajo," against the corruption of his times. Among these, the "Spaccio della Bestia trionfante," and "La Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo," deserve special mention. But the most important, perhaps, among the moral writings of Bruno is that which he rightly inscribed, under the title of "Gli Eroici Furori," to his generous friend and patron in England, the great Philip Sydney—a work in which he gave vent to his highest aspirations towards divine beauty and perfection, tracing out the noble struggles of the intellect in its conquest of truth and goodness, and the efficiency of the will in this militant mission.—For a complete catalogue of the writings of Bruno, see, besides Bruker and Buhle, the preface to the edition of his Italian works, by Wagner.—A. S., O.
* BRUNOFF or BRUNOW, Baron Philip, one of the most distinguished living statesmen of Russia, born at Dresden in 1794; he entered the Russian service in 1818, at the time of the congress of Aix la Chapelle. Count Capo d'Istria immediately formed a high opinion of his capacity, and intrusted to him and Counsellor Sturdza the task of compiling a civil code to be applied to the government of the Roumane population of Bessarabia, then a recent conquest. He assisted at the various congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and Verona, in the quality of secretary to the embassy. Count Nesselrode appreciated his talents, and placed him at the head of his own chancellerie. The celebrated answer of the Russian cabinet to the Anglo-French remonstrance at the treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi in 1832, has always been attributed to Brunoff. From 1840 to 1854 he acted as Russian plenipotentiary in England, and began the exercise of his functions in that capacity with the masterly treaty of the 15th July, 1840, which, on the eastern question, united England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, against France. The honour of that achievement is universally allowed to belong to Brunoff. He exerted himself to prevent that interruption of diplomatic relations between England and Russia which preceded the Crimean war. At the close of the war Brunoff was sent as ambassador to Berlin, and in 1857 was again nominated ambassador to London.—M. Q.
BRUNSWICK, House of, an ancient German family of princely rank, descended from Albert Azo I., margrave of Este in Italy, who died in 964. Guelph, great-great-grandson of this prince, inherited from his mother, daughter of Guelph II., the duchy of Bavaria, and founded the junior house of Guelph, from which the Brunswick family sprung. One of his descendants, named Otho, was invested with the province of Brunswick as a fief of the empire in 1235, and was recognized as the first duke of Brunswick. Several branches soon diverged from the parent stem. Ernest, the Confessor, a staunch supporter of the protestant cause—born in 1497; died in 1546—was the founder of both branches of the existing dynasty—Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Brunswick-Luneburg. One of his descendants, Ernest Augustus of Brunswick-Luneburg, joined the allies in the great war against Louis XIV. of France, and was rewarded with the long-desired title of elector of Hanover, which was procured for him through the exertions of King William III. of England. (See Hanover.) George, a son of the elector, succeeded to the crown of Great Britain on the death of Queen Anne in 1714. Duke Augustus, who died in 1666, was distinguished for his literary tastes, and wrote several works under the designation of Gustavus Selenus. On his decease, the youngest of his three sons became duke of Bevern, and founded the line of that name. The two elder, Rodolph Augustus and Anthony Ulrich, became joint rulers of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The latter published a number of novels, in 6 vols. 4to, and in 1710 renounced the hereditary faith of his family, and joined the Romish church. (See Carlyle's Life of Frederick the Great, vol. ii., p. 376.) His great-grandson married, in 1739, Anne, duchess of Mecklenburg, heiress of all the Russias. Iwan, the son and heir of this couple, was murdered in 1764, and they were exiled to Siberia. As the sons of Anthony Ulrich died without male issue, Ferdinand Albert, of the line of Bevern, succeeded to the dukedom in 1735. One of his sons was the celebrated Prince Ferdinand, "a cheerful, singularly polite, modest, and well-conditioned man withal," who entered the Prussian service, acquired great reputation as a soldier in the Thirty Years' war, and in 1757 gained the battles of Crefeld and Minden, and drove the French out of Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel. Another son, Lewis Ernest, was long captain-general of the United Provinces, but was expelled by the popular party in 1787. After a reign of a few months, Ferdinand Albert died in 1735, and was succeeded by his son, Charles, who in 1754 transferred the seat of government to Brunswick, and there founded the celebrated Collegium Carolinum. He was succeeded in 1780 by his son, Charles
