among the nobles, and employed his leisure till 1414 in the composition of several writings, the chief of which was his treatise "De Ecclesia." In this work the pope is still recognized as vicarius Christi and pontifex maximus ecclesiæ, on condition of his being a follower of St. Peter in fides, humilitas, caritas. It is only if these moral conditions are wanting that the pope becomes antichristi nuncius vicarius Judæ. Huss also maintains in this treatise the sole authority of scripture as the rule of faith—neither the minds of the saints, nor the bulls of the popes, have any authority unless what they teach is either scripture, or implied in scripture. Still he stops far short of the reformation of the sixteenth century. His views of theological doctrine are still those of the church. He could not be the founder of a new church, like Luther. Seeing only the necessity of an outward improvement in the morals and administration of the church, and not of an internal renovation of its theology and religious life, he might become a martyr, but he could not be a reformer. Still his work was true and noble, and his career heroic; and both his work and career were now hurrying to their only appropriate end. In the year 1414 assembled the celebrated council of Constance, and Huss was invited by the Emperor Sigismund, at whose instance Pope John XXIII. had assembled the council, to bring his appeal before it. The emperor promised that he should have a hearing in the council, and sent him a safe-conduct to guarantee his return to Bohemia in the event of the council deciding against him. Huss accepted the suggestion on these conditions, and on the 3rd of November he arrived in Constance. But on the 28th of the same month he was seized under the false pretext that he was meditating a flight from Constance, and thrown into prison, where he was kept for months. The Bohemian nobles reminded Sigismund in vain of his promising a safe-conduct. The bishops had prompted him to give the infamous reply, that he was not bound to keep faith with a heretic. It was not till the 5th of June, 1415, that Huss was heard before the council. On the morning of the 6th of July, his birthday, sentence was given against him at the cathedral of Constance; and before eleven o'clock of the same day his body was reduced to ashes at the stake. He died with unshaken constancy—exustus, non convictus, in the judgment even of Erasmus. The first complete edition of his works appeared at Nuremberg in two volumes in 1558.—P. L.
HUTCHESON, Francis, the most eloquent and influential professor in the Scottish universities in the first half of last century, who by his academical and literary labours awakened Scottish philosophical life, well nigh dormant for more than a century, and greatly determined its subsequent character. He was born in the north of Ireland on the 8th of August, 1694. The contemporary of Archbishop King, and of Bishops Berkeley and Brown, his name may be associated with theirs in the modern history of Irish philosophy, and with the names of Smith and Reid, his successors in Scotland, the land of his adoption. Hutcheson was Irish by birth, Scotch by descent; and the last sixteen years of his life were spent in Scotland. His father, Mr. John Hutcheson, was pastor of a dissenting congregation at Armagh—a worthy evangelical presbyterian. Alexander Hutcheson, the grandfather of Francis, was the second son of an ancient family in Ayrshire, born in that county early in the seventeenth century, and, like his son, a presbyterian pastor in Ulster. After being trained for some years at school and at an academy in his native country, Francis entered the university of Glasgow about 1709. He took his degree of M.A. in November, 1712; and seems to have entered as a student of theology in February, 1713. Gershom Carmichael was then one of the lights of the college. The learned and celebrated John Simson was professor of theology. When a student of theology at Glasgow, young Hutcheson corresponded with Dr. Samuel Clarke—one of the numerous objectors evoked by the celebrated demonstration a priori. The objections which he urged against the demonstrative method, in questions which he considered to be out of its sphere, anticipate his own tendency in later life, and that of most other Scotch philosophers, to treat metaphysics and morals as matters of fact, and not as founded on abstract and necessary relations. About 1717 Hutcheson returned to Ireland; and in 1719 he was licensed to preach by the Irish presbyterian dissenters. His grave and philosophical eloquence had little attraction apparently for the congregations of that communion. After travelling in Ulster for some time as a licentiate, he was about to take charge of a small and remote congregation, when he was invited by friends who were unwilling that he should settle in so uncongenial a sphere, to open an academy in the Irish metropolis. He accordingly removed to Dublin about 1721, and passed there the eight following years of his life—a period to him of great intellectual progress and growing fame. His remarkable conversational powers, with his taste and learning, secured for him the society of the most distinguished persons. Soon after his settlement in Dublin he became intimate with Lord Molesworth, the friend of Shaftesbury and Toland. Hutcheson's "Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue," which contains the germ of his philosophy, appeared anonymously in 1725. The author of so remarkable a performance could not long remain unknown. He was sought out by Lord Carteret, then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to whom the second edition of his "Inquiry," avowed by the author, was dedicated in 1726. It gained for the young Ulster metaphysician and moralist the friendship, among others, of Dr. Synge, afterwards bishop of Elphin, Dr. King, the philosophical archbishop of Dublin, and Dr. Boulter, the primate of Ireland. The "Inquiry" was followed, in 1728, by an "Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions, with Illustrations on the Moral Sense." These two works form properly one treatise. In 1729 Hutcheson, now celebrated as a philosopher, was called from Dublin to Scotland, to succeed Gershom Carmichael as professor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow. On the 19th December in that year he was elected "by a majority of the faculty." In the February following he was appointed by the college to discourse on certain subjects in logic, ethics, and physics, previously to his admission, which took place in November, 1730. Soon after he obtained a doctor's degree. He brought some pupils with him from Dublin to Glasgow; and his fame drew many more from England and Ireland. In his new office he introduced a literary culture among the youth of Scotland which that country had not before known. His philosophical moderation seems to have made him at first an object of suspicion to some zealots in the west; but his good sense and conciliatory deportment ultimately secured the respect of all parties. Although he spoke Latin with unusual fluency and elegance, and was well versed in Greek and Roman literature, he introduced the custom of lecturing in English into Glasgow college. He usually lectured extempore, walking up and down in his class-room, and spoke with an earnest eloquence which found its way to the heart. Students advanced in years attended his lectures for successive sessions, finding fresh pleasure, though the course was in the main the same every season. Besides his regular lectures (which included natural theology, ethics, and jurisprudence) five days a week, he had three weekly lectures on ancient philosophical literature, and one on Sunday evenings on the christian evidences and doctrines. His theological expositions were distinguished by candour and freedom from controversial dogmatism. He loved truth and intellectual liberty, and did not wish that any one should accept his opinions on authority alone. Nourished in the principles of the Revolution, of sober and sincere piety, he constantly appealed to reason and good sense. It was owing to Hutcheson and Leechman, we are told by Dr. Carlyle, that "a new school was formed in the western provinces of Scotland, where the clergy till that period were narrow and bigoted, and had never ventured to range in their minds beyond the bounds of strict orthodoxy. For though neither of these professors taught any heresy, yet they opened and enlarged the minds of the students, which gave them a turn for free inquiry, the result of which was candour and liberality of sentiment. From experience, this freedom of thought was not found so dangerous as might be apprehended; for though the more daring youth made incursions into the unbounded regions of metaphysical perplexity, yet all the judicious soon returned to the lower sphere of long established truths, which they found not only more subservient to the good of society, but necessary to fix their own minds in some degree of stability." In April, 1745, the year before his death, Hutcheson was nominated by the town council to the chair of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, but declined the honour in a tone which speaks of uncertain health. He died at Dublin on the 8th of August, 1746, the day on which he completed his fifty-second year (see Scots Magazine for that year). The external appearance of Hutcheson was the image of his mind. His stature was above the middle size; his manner was easy, dignified, and manly; his complexion was fair, and his features regular; his look bespoke good sense,
