revolution, with that well-known orator for its hero. The chief of his other novels are "Les Gaietés Champêtres," and. "La Religieuse de Toulouse." To the "Français peints par eux mêmes," he contributed some of his and its most successful sketches of French character. His "Mois de Mai à Londres et l'exposition de 1851," must not be forgotten, as conveying in his own inimitable style his impression of the great metropolis, which he visited at that era. Janin has been compared to Diderot; but the only resemblance is a slight one of manner. The feuilletonist has nothing of the philosopher's intellectual grasp and daring. M. Janin has also published a French translation of the Odes of Horace, and one of Richardson's Clarissa Harlowe, abridged.—F. E.
JANSEN, Zacharias, spectacle-maker at Middleburg in Holland, died about 1619. He was one of the claimants of the honour of having made the first telescope.—(See Lippersheim.)—W. J. M. R.
JANSENIUS, Cornelius, a Belgian theologian, born at Hulst in 1510; died at Ghent, 10th April, 1576. He studied at Louvain, and devoted himself sedulously to Greek and Hebrew. He soon obtained a professorship at Tongerloo, and in 1562 was called to Louvain, from which place he was sent by Philip II. to the council of Trent. On his return to the Netherlands he was, in 1568, named bishop of Ghent. His works on the sacred scriptures are held in high esteem. He left a "Concordia Evangelica, et ejusdem concordiæ ratio," Louvain, 1549; a paraphrase of the Psalms of David; "Commentarii in Concordiam ac totam Historiam Evangelicam," many editions of which were published at Louvain, and also at Antwerp and Venice. This is Jansenius' principal work. He left also Annotations on the Song of Solomon; Commentaries on the Proverbs and the book of Ecclesiastes; and several theological works relating to his diocese.—P. E. D.
JANSENIUS, Cornelius, whose real name was Jansen, famous as the founder of Jansenism, was born at Aquoy, near Leerdam in Holland, on October 28, 1585. He studied first at Utrecht, and afterwards at Louvain, where Jacob Janson, a disciple of Michael Baius, the first modern vindicator of efficacious grace, was theological professor. Their principles Jansenius imbibed, and during his residence at Louvain contracted a friendship with John Vergerius or Du Verger, afterwards so celebrated in the history of Jansenism as the abbé of St. Cyran. On leaving Louvain in consequence of indisposition, Jansenius went to Paris, where he again met with Du Verger, whom he soon after followed to Bayonne; and there, says Bayle, "they studied together with extraordinary application, and so won the esteem of the bishop of Bayonne, that he procured a canonicate in his cathedral for Du Verger, and the presidency of a college for Jansenius." From Bayonne Jansenius returned to Louvain, where he was appointed principal of St. Pulcheria's college, and soon after, in 1617, a professor-in-ordinary. Twice he was sent to Spain on important business, in 1624 and 1625. In 1630 he was appointed biblical professor, and in 1635 bishop of Ypres. His "Mars Gallicus," published in favour of Spanish interests in 1633, appears to have obtained for him the mitre. This was not, however, his first publication. In 1627 he printed a Latin discourse, "De interioris hominis Reformatione," delivered at the abbey of Afflighem, soon after the superior and eleven of the monks had embraced protestantism. In 1630 he published "Alexipharmacum," an address to the people of Bois-le-Duc in reply to the Calvinists. This was answered by the celebrated Gisbert Voet, and defended by its author in "Spongia Notarum." Dupin says that before he was appointed bishop he gave to the public commentaries on the Pentateuch, on Proverbs, on the Book of Wisdom, the prophet Habakkuk, and the four gospels. Jansenius died May 6th, 1638, having just completed the work which has since caused so much commotion. It was published in 1640 with the following title—"Cornelii Jansenii episcopi Iprensis, Augustinus, seu doctrina Sancti Augustini de humanæ naturæ sanitate, ægritudine, medicina, adversus Pelagianos et Massilienses." It consisted of three parts, of which the first is a history of semi-pelagianism; the second expounds the doctrine of Augustine on human nature in its purity and its depravity; the third treats of grace and predestination. Voltaire says nobody read the book till Du Verger came to Paris, and induced some young doctors and old women to do it. The jesuits, however, at once found it out, and its perusal was forbidden by a decree of the Inquisition, dated August 1, 1640, while Urban VIII. in March, 1641, issued a bull declaring that the work of Jansenius contained various propositions already condemned by Pius V. and Gregory XIII. The controversy thus inaugurated continued, and at length in 1649 a majority of the theological faculty at Paris condemned five propositions extracted from the "Augustinus." These propositions were drawn up by Nicolas Cornet, syndic of the faculty of theology, and were to the following effect:—1. "That some precepts of God are beyond the power of some just persons who are willing and endeavour according to their present strength, and they lack that grace by which those precepts can be performed. 2. Inward grace in the state of fallen nature is never resisted. 3. In order to merit and demerit in the state of fallen nature, there is not required in man liberty from necessity, but liberty from constraint is sufficient. 4. The semi-Pelagians admitted the necessity of inward prevenient grace, for single acts and even the beginning of faith; and herein were they heretics, that they made it (grace) such as the human will can resist. 5. It is semi-Pelagian to say that Christ died, or shed his blood for all men without exception." These five propositions were eventually sent by the jesuits to Rome, with a request that they might be condemned by the pope. Innocent X. in 1651 appointed a commission to examine the question, and at length in 1653, by a bull dated May 31, he pronounced against them. He declared the first to be "rash, impious, blasphemous, anathematized, and heretical." The second and third he condemned as "heretical;" the fourth as "false and heretical;" and the fifth as "false, rash, scandalous, and—understood in the sense that Christ died only for the elect—impious, blasphemous, contumelious, derogatory to godliness, and heretical." The bull goes on to forbid all persons to hold or teach the above, and calls upon church dignitaries and inquisitors to coerce and put to silence all who disobey, by penalties, censures, and the secular arm if necessary. The followers of Jansenius evaded the bull in various ways; it failed to give chapter and verse, and it did not say the propositions were heretical in the sense in which Jansenius held them. The agents of their party declared before leaving Rome, that they would not subscribe to the condemnation but with the proviso that "the grace of Christ, which is per se efficacious, was necessary to individual acts of religion, and that the doctrine of St. Augustine was excepted." However, Cardinal Mazarin in 1654 called an assembly of bishops, who declared that the bull must be received as applying to the actual opinions of Jansenius as taught by him. In the name of this assembly the bull was sent to all the bishops in the kingdom. After the death of Innocent, his successor, Alexander VII., issued a bull condemning the propositions "in the sense of Jansenius;" whereupon, says the author of a True Idea of Jansenisme, London, 1669, "the Jansenists were hereby crushed, and brought under a severe persecution." The assembly of the clergy drew up a formulary, condemning the five propositions in Jansenius' sense, and all ecclesiastics were required to sign it or to lose all their benefices. The "formulary" made many hypocrites, but led many to rebel, although they endangered their position and were liable to excommunication. Among the chief adherents of Jansenius was Antoine Arnauld, who in 1656 was expelled from the Sorbonne and from his professorship there, after being compelled to retreat from Port Royal, where he had for some years resided. Du Verger was cut off as early as 1641. Jean Labadie, an ex-jesuit and afterwards a protestant, lent a helping hand for a season. Pascal took the offensive in 1656 by the publication of the Provincial Letters. The number of writers on both sides was immense. There was abundance of persecution, and there were some martyrs. Jansenius was abused and misrepresented; he had "been a Calvinist," they said, "and the son of a Calvinist; he had been a great reader of Calvinistic books, and his doctrine was the high road to Calvinism." Even his tomb was not held sacred; his successor at Ypres took down, if he did not destroy, his epitaph—Leydecker says, at the instigation of Pope Alexander VII. himself. The disputes between the two parties went on with varying degrees of intensity till far on in the last century. All sorts of means were had recourse to by both parties, but in the end Jansenism quailed before the followers of Ignatius Loyola. The sufferings of the Port Royalists and others, the influence of great names, the polemics of Arnauld, the Letters of Pascal, the commentaries of Quesnel, and the miracles of the deacon de Paris, with the authority of Augustine and of the Bible itself, failed to prevent the downfall of Jansenism, which now only exists in a tangible form in a community at Utrecht.
