the Reformation also attracted her attention, and were in part embraced by her. She extended her protection to many of the persecuted protestants; her great influence with Francis was exerted on their behalf, and the aged Lefevre D'Etaples spent the close of his active and troubled life in peace at her court. Several productions of her pen were published, of which the most celebrated was the "Miroir de l'ame Pecheresse." She died in 1559, leaving one child, the famous Jeanne D'Albret, the mother of Henri IV.—W. B.
MARGARET of York was the sister of Edward IV. of England, and married Charles the Rash, duke of Burgundy. She was the implacable opponent of Henry VII., and by her incessant intrigues disturbed the tranquillity of his reign. The impostors Lambert Symnel and Perkin Warbeck were indebted to her for money and arms in their attempts to overthrow Henry's authority.—J. T.
MARGARET, Countess of Richmond. See Beaufort.
MARGARET, Duchess of Newcastle. See Cavendish.
MARGARITONE of Arezzo, the son of Magnano, was an Italian artist celebrated in his time, and much eulogized by Vasari. He was born at Arezzo in 1236, and was therefore an older painter than Cimabue. His education appears to have been Greek or Byzantine, as shown by his works, and he was never influenced by the renaissance movement of Cimabue and Giotto. Margaritone was painter, sculptor, and architect, and in all three arts eminent; he was employed by two popes. Urban IV. and Gregory X. The best of his remaining works of painting is now preserved in the National gallery. In sculpture his principal work is the monument to Pope Gregory X. in the episcopal palace at Arezzo, which latter is an example of his architectural ability. The picture in the National gallery is a precious old relic of genuine mediæval art, and is the oldest picture in the collection. It was an altar front in the church of Santa Margherita at Arezzo, is on linen attached to wood, and painted in distemper. The centre represents the Virgin and Child in the Vesica or Ichthus, and on each side are four smaller compositions from the lives of the Virgin, St. John the Evangelist, St. Benedict, St. Catherine, St. Nicholas of Bari, and St. Margaret; their subjects are inscribed upon them; the hand of Christ is blessing according to the Greek rite. Margaritone died at Arezzo in 1313, weary of life, says Vasari; having quite outlived the art and taste of his own time, which had been completely superseded by the school of Giotto. Our picture is signed "Margarit. de Aritio me fecit."—R. N. W.
MARGET, Jean-Jacques, physician, born at Geneva, 1652. He took his degree at Valence, and in 1699 was appointed by Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg and afterwards first king of Prussia, his honorary physician. He is the author of numerous works, the most important of which is his "Bibliotheca Scriptorum Medicorum veterum et recentiorum." His death took place in 1742.—W. B—d.
MARGRAAF, Andreas Sigismund, a German chemist, was born in Berlin, 1709. He acquired the rudiments of chemistry under his father, an apothecary. He afterwards studied under Neumann, and worked in various pharmaceutical laboratories in Halle, Frankfort, Strasburg, and Freiburg. In 1760 he succeeded Eller as director of the physical section of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He died in 1782, having obtained a high reputation. He was one of the earliest cultivators of chemical analysis, without, however, attempting quantitative operations. He experimented on phosphorus, on its extraction from urine, and on phosphoric acid, and is probably the earliest chemist who describes these bodies with accuracy. He discovered the distinct character of alumina, and showed its presence in alum and in clay. He has also left papers on soda, on chloride of silver, on fluor-spar, and on tartar. His earlier writings were collected and published at Paris in 1762, in two small volumes. His later papers will be found in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy.—J. W. S.
MARIA LECZINSKA, Queen-consort of Louis XV. of France, was a daughter of Stanislaus Leczinski, king of Poland. Born in 1703, she was still a child when her father was driven from his throne. After various wanderings from one refuge to another the royal exiles were residing near Weissemburg, when the messengers arrived from Louis with proposals of marriage, and the ceremony took place at Fontainebleau in 1725. She was not unfitted to adorn the high station which she now occupied, for though her personal appearance was unattractive, she possessed taste and accomplishments which she gratified by the patronage of literature and the fine arts; the dramatist Moncrif had a special share of her favour and assistance. But the principal features of her character were her gentle disposition and her maternal tenderness. She had eight children, of whom several died before her, and the grief which she experienced under these losses is said to have hastened her own death, which took place in 1768.—W. B.
MARIA LOUISA, second wife of the Emperor Napoleon, eldest daughter of Francis I., emperor of Austria, and Maria Theresa of Naples, was born in 1791. Towards the close of 1809, when the treaty of Schönbrunn was signed, Napoleon having resolved to divorce Josephine, extorted from the Austrian emperor, who was then completely at the conqueror's mercy, the promise of his daughter's hand, although such a marriage was a direct breach of the canons of the Romish church, and was exceedingly unpopular among the Austrian people, who declared that the princess was sacrificed to political interests and intrigues. She was married on the 11th of March, 1810, at Schönbrunn. Berthier acting as proxy for Bonaparte. Four days later she set out for France, and was met by the emperor on the high road between Soissons and Compiegne. On the first of April the religious marriage ceremony was performed at St. Cloud by Cardinal Fesch, and was followed by splendid festivals and public rejoicings, which were marred, however, by a melancholy accident—the breaking out of a fire, on the occasion of a grand ball and fête given in the house of the Austrian ambassador, Prince Schwartzemberg, in which the hostess and several other persons lost their lives. On the 20th of March, 1811, the empress was delivered of a son, whose birth was welcomed with noisy acclamations by the Parisians, and seemed greatly to increase the affection which Napoleon entertained for his wife. In 1812 she accompanied him to Dresden, and presided at the magnificent entertainments given to the sovereigns of Germany, who had assembled there to do honour to the French potentate. After the Russian disasters and the coalition of these same sovereigns against France, when Napoleon quitted Paris to commence the campaign in Germany in 1813, Maria Louisa was appointed regent, assisted by a council, and seems to have managed affairs with courage and prudence. The emperor and she never again met. On the approach of the allied armies in the end of March, 1814, the empress quitted the capital and retired to Blois with her infant son, and on the 11th of April she left this place for Orleans, to put herself under the protection of her father, the emperor of Austria. When her husband abdicated his throne and took up his residence at Elba, it was agreed by the allies that she should obtain the sovereignty of the duchies of Parma and Placentia. On the final overthrow of Napoleon and his exile to St. Helena, his wife displayed marked indifference to his misfortunes, and did not conceal her attachment to her chamberlain, Count Neipperg, whom she privately married after the death of Napoleon, and to whom she bore a numerous family. The count died in 1829. Maria Louisa's government of the duchies was wholly regulated by Austrian policy. She was compelled to quit Parma by an insurrectionary movement in 1831, and a second time in 1847, when she took refuge at Vienna, and died there on the 18th December of that year. Maria Louisa was tall and fair, with a beautiful complexion and fine person.—J. T.
MARIA THERESA (Walpurgia Amelia Christina), Empress of Germany, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, was born on the 13th of May, 1717. Her father, the Emperor Charles VI., anticipating the extinction of the male line of his house, had in 1713 executed a deed known as the Pragmatic sanction, by which his own daughter was to succeed him in preference to the daughter of his elder brother, the Emperor Joseph I. This solemn public document was guaranteed by the principal powers of Europe; and in the month of October, 1740, Maria Theresa succeeded to the sovereignty of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Four years previously she had married Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, subsequently grand-duke of Tuscany. Her accession was joyfully greeted by her subjects. Young, beautiful, spirited, and clever, her inexperience in business was not regarded with any alarm. When crowned at Presburg as queen of Hungary in June, 1741, she had fascinated the Hungarians by her graceful beauty, and roused their loyalty to the highest pitch by taking the disused oath of their popular king, Andrew II., in confirmation of their privileges. To this
