wrote for the Universal History the portions relating to ancient history, except that of Rome; a volume of essays on several scriptural subjects; a version of the Psalms; an "Essay on Miracles," by a layman, 8vo; and "Memoirs of . . . commonly known by the name of George Psalmanazar, a reputed native of Formosa, written by himself," but not published till after his death.—J. T.
PSELLUS, Michael, the Elder, was a native of Andros, and flourished after the middle of the ninth century. He was one of the most learned men of his day, especially in ancient literature and philosophy. He was the author of a poem now lost.
PSELLUS, Michael Constantius, the Younger, was born at Constantinople in 1020. He was one of the few persons of his age who devoted themselves to a life of study, and he taught philosophy and science at Constantinople under the immediate patronage of the emperors. In 1078, however, on the elevation of Nicephorus Botanias, he was banished to a monastery. His works are extant, and extend over almost every department of knowledge. Many of them have been published, but others are still unedited. The date of his death is not precisely known, but he was certainly alive in 1105.—D. M.
PSYCHRISTUS or PSYCOCHRISTUS, Jacobus, a physician who lived in the fifth century, was a native of Alexandria. He was distinguished for his knowledge of philosophy as well as physic, and his eminent talents obtained for him the appointment of physician to Leo the Thracian. He is highly praised by Isidore of Gaza and by Suidas, who tells us his contemporaries believed that the soul of Æsculapius had passed into the body of Jacobus. He does not appear to have been the author of any works on medicine, though some of his prescriptions are to be found in Alexander Trallianus.—D. M.
PTOLEMY II. (Philadelphus) was son of Ptolemy I., by Berenice. He was associated with his father in the government of Egypt at the age of twenty-four, i.e. 285 b.c.; and when the latter died, he became sole sovereign of an important and powerful kingdom. In his reign a foundation was laid for the high literary and scientific importance to which Egypt attained under his successors. Philadelphus seems to have been of a pacific disposition; there were few wars in his time. His brother Magas invaded Egypt twice, but gained nothing more than the recognition of his independent sovereignty over the Cyrenaica. Ptolemy was not inattentive to affairs abroad as well as those at home; for he sent a fleet to assist the Athenians against Antigonus Gonatas, and concluded a treaty with the Romans, which prevented him from helping the Carthaginians against them. Of the wars between him and the king of Syria little is known; but when peace was finally concluded between them, he gave his daughter in marriage to Antiochus III. In Greece he helped Aratus with money, and appears to have disliked Macedonia. Foreign relations, however, occupied less of his attention than his own dominions, which he consolidated and strengthened with great wisdom. He cleared Upper Egypt of robbers; founded Ptolemais with the object of getting war elephants from Ethiopia; built Arsinöe and Berenice, places most important for expediting commerce; and sent an ambassador even to India. Thus he did much towards developing commerce about the Nile and Red Sea; while he opened up a route to distant lands. The institutions that shed most lustre on his reign were the museum and library in Alexandria. The latter is said to have contained four hundred thousand rolls. He also built the lighthouse on Pharos, and the royal sepulchre. Poets, philosophers, and learned men were welcomed at his court. He was an acknowledged lover and patron of learning. He encouraged the arts of painting and sculpture, as well as science in its various branches. It is even said that he commanded the Jewish scriptures to be translated into Greek. In short his reign was illustrious from the munificent encouragement given to men of letters, poets, and philosophers; from the splendour of his public buildings, the extent of his dominions, his vast standing army and fleet, his wealth, and toleration of Jews and Greeks equally. He died 247 b.c., after reigning alone thirty-six years. But though his reign was outwardly prosperous, and his policy generally wise and beneficial, his private character will not bear examination. He put two brothers to death, banished his first wife, and then married his own sister.—S. D.
PTOLEMY IV. (Philopator), son and successor of Ptolemy Euergetes, began his reign with deeds of blood, 222 b.c., by murdering his mother Berenice, his brother Magas, and his uncle Lysimachus. Sosibius was his minister and councillor, a man little better than his master, and unfitted to conduct the affairs of a great kingdom. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, now turned his attention to the declining state of the country and the indolence of its monarch. After reducing Seleucia he went to Phenicia, and got possession, through Theodotus, of Tyre and Ptolemais. In consequence of these hostile proceedings an army was collected, and, along with a fleet, sent against Antiochus; but the army was conquered, and Palestine, with a great part of Coele-Syria, fell into the hands of the Syrian king, 218 b.c. In 217 b.c. Ptolemy marched at the head of a large army against Antiochus, and defeated him at Raphia with great loss. After peace was concluded between the two sovereigns, Ptolemy returned home by way of Jerusalem, where he was refused admission into the sanctuary, and became afterwards the bitter enemy of the Jews both in their own land and in Alexandria. Some time after his return he murdered his queen Arsinöe. His death took place 205 b.c., after a reign of seventeen years. The character of Philopator is that of a weak and indolent sensualist. He indulged without restraint in the lowest vices, and cared little for public affairs. Yet he was a patron and admirer of men of letters, philosophers, and poets. Sunk as he was in the most debasing pleasures, he did not lose all relish for learning and art. His reign was marked by imbecility; for Sosibius was merely an instrument in gratifying his master, and could not properly carry on the affairs of the state; yet learning flourished and commerce continued to prosper. Outwardly the kingdom appeared to be what it had been in the preceding reigns, but the seeds of decay were being sown to ripen and bear fruit thereafter.—S. D.
PTOLEMY VI. (Philometor), eldest son of Ptolemy V. The death of his father took place when he was a child, b.c. 181, and the affairs of the kingdom were managed by his mother, Cleopatra. On her decease in 173 b.c. Eulæus and Lenæus acted injudiciously, and soon plunged the country into a war with Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria, with the view of recovering the provinces of Coele-Syria and Phenicia. Antiochus defeated the Egyptian army at Pelusium and advanced to Memphis, 170 b.c. Philometer himself fell into the hands of the victor, who treated him with distinction. His younger brother, who was then at Alexandria with Cleopatra his sister, hearing that Philometor was a prisoner, assumed the title of king under the name Euergetes II., and therefore Antiochus laid siege to his city, but the Romans caused him to withdraw. Having established Philometor at Memphis, the Syrians returned to their own country. After this the young king proposed peace between himself and his brother. It was agreed that they should reign jointly, Philometor marrying his sister Cleopatra. The report of this junction led Antiochus to march again into Egypt. When he had got before the walls of Alexandria a Roman embassy commanded him to desist, 168 b.c. The union of the brothers was not of long duration. Euergetes expelled Philometor from Alexandria. The latter then appealed to the Romans, who reinstated him in the sovereignty. The Roman deputies gave Cyrene to Euergetes; while Philometor had Egypt for his kingdom. But the restless ambition of the younger brother prompted him to go to Rome, where he got a promise of Cyprus being added to his dominions. The negotiations for effecting the peaceable cession of the island came to nothing, because Philometor was beforehand in having both a fleet and army in the island, and defeated his brother, who fell into his power, but was again pardoned on condition that he should keep himself within Cyrene. Ptolemy assisted Alexander Balas against Demetrius Soter, and gave him his daughter Cleopatra in marriage. In consequence, however, of an attempt upon his life by Alexander's minister Ammonius, he concluded a peace with Demetrius, son of the dethroned monarch, and transferred his daughter from Alexander to him. Ptolemy soon became master of all Syria, and established Demetrius on the throne. Alexander advancing against the two was routed; but Philometor was killed by a fall from his horse. His death took place 146 b.c., after a reign of thirty-five years. It is creditable to Ptolemy that he received and protected a great number of Jews, who settled at Heliopolis in his reign. He was a humane and wise king, of a pacific and generous disposition. Egypt flourished under his sway.—S. D.
PTOLEMY VIII. (Soter II. or Lathyrus) was the eldest son of Ptolemy Physcon by Cleopatra. His mother had been appointed to succeed to the throne, and wished to have the younger son, Ptolemy Alexander, co-regent. She was compelled, however, by popular feeling to take Lathyrus instead. It was
