the service of Louis XIV., and he recommended himself to the favour of the extreme popish party by his merciless persecution of the Huguenots. It is said that he was known in France by the name of "the Hangman," and that at Rome he was held in abhorrence by the very cardinals, on account of his cruelty. He held for some time a command in Savoy, where the Irish regiments in the French service formed part of his forces, and fought with great courage. He was therefore selected to take charge of the expedition sent from France in 1691, to the assistance of the Jacobites in Ireland. On his arrival at Limerick, he lost no time in applying himself vigorously to the task of disciplining the half-naked Irish levies, and took prompt and judicious measures to arrest the progress of the royal forces commanded by Ginkell. He selected Athlone as the place where a stand could best be made; but after he had for several days repulsed the attacks of the enemy, and success seemed certain, he allowed, by his over-confidence, the passage of the Shannon to be suddenly effected, and Athlone to be captured. He retreated to Aughrim, thirty miles distant, and determined, contrary to the advice of his Irish officers, to try the chances of a battle. Having taken up a well-chosen and advantageous position, he awaited the attack of the royal army, which took place on the 12th of July. The contest was maintained with great bravery and stubborn resolution by his troops, but in the crisis of the battle St. Ruth was killed by a cannon ball. His army was defeated with great slaughter, and the cause of James was completely ruined.—J. T.
SAINT-SIMON, Claude Henry de Rouvroy, Count de, was born at Paris on the 17th October, 1760. He was the son of Balthazar de Saint-Simon, who was nearly related to the Duke de Saint-Simon, famous for his memoirs illustrating the reign of Louis XIV. and the regency. The Saint-Simons claimed to be the descendants of Charlemagne. This pretension has been ridiculed by Michelet, who says that the family was far from being ancient. But the belief that his ancestor was the mighty Charlemagne made Henry de Saint-Simon dream from his childhood of glory. At the age of seventeen he entered the army. He accompanied the troops sent by the French government to the assistance of the Americans, and took a distinguished part in five campaigns. When the English general, Cornwallis, capitulated. Admiral De Grasse received the bulk of the French troops on board his ships for service in the West Indies. In a famous and decisive battle De Grasse having been defeated by Rodney, Saint-Simon was one of the prisoners. He remained in captivity at Jamaica till peace was declared. After a short visit to Mexico, where he presented a plan to the viceroy for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Saint-Simon returned to France, and was created colonel. Though he had the best prospects of promotion, yet he suddenly left the army, resolving to travel. His first excursion was to Holland. The Dutch had determined on an expedition against the English colonies in the East Indies. Saint-Simon was one of the most willing volunteers. But his motive was somewhat ignoble: he wished to have an opportunity of seeing Asia. Through the neglect of the French ambassador the expedition was abandoned. It was to Spain that Saint-Simon next turned his steps. The Spanish government had conceived the grand design of bringing Madrid into communication with the sea by means of a canal. Grand as was the design, Saint-Simon offered to the Spanish government a still grander organization for its accomplishment. But ere the preliminary arrangements had been fixed, the French political troubles began to send their vibrations through Europe. In November, 1789, Saint-Simon hastened home. His family had property in the neighbourhood of Péronne in Picardy. Actively Saint-Simon set himself to preach the doctrines of liberty and equality in the commune of Falvy, district of Péronne. He sympathized, however, with the Revolution more in its social than in its political aspects and tendencies. Saint-Simon had met at Madrid Count De Redern, subsequently Prussian ambassador in England. With funds supplied by the count, Saint-Simon commenced in 1790 to buy confiscated property. The speculation, not quite in harmony with the highest principles of honour, was eminently successful, even when Saint-Simon was apprehended and kept for a year in prison as a political offender. While expecting every day to be one of the guillotine's countless victims, he received an imaginary visit from his imaginary ancestor, Charlemagne. The cheering words of Charlemagne heralded the deliverance which the fall of Robespierre brought. Saint-Simon continued his gambling in confiscated property till 1797. On retiring, Saint-Simon received from the greedy Count De Redern a sum equivalent to six thousand pounds, a very inadequate share of the spoils. Deluded by the enthusiastic dreams of social regeneration which he had long cherished, Saint-Simon spent his money as recklessly as if he had had six times six thousand pounds a year, instead of six thousand pounds altogether. A scientific school of perfectionment was founded, accompanied by an establishment of industry. Expensive scientific experiments were made. Gorgeous entertainments were give to men of science, to philosophers, to Utopians, and to charlatans. In 1801, just when his purse was getting empty, Saint-Simon married Mademoiselle De Champgrand, a lady of good birth. But in July, 1802, he divorced this excellent and gifted woman, for no other reason than that he wished to marry Madame De Staël, who had become a widow. But when Saint-Simon went to Coppet, near Geneva, he found Madame De Staël not inclined to accept the honour intended for her. At Geneva Saint-Simon published his first work, entitled "Letters from an Inhabitant of Geneva to his Contemporaries." A journey to England was followed by one to Germany. In the main, Saint-Simon admired England, but disliked the English distaste for theorizing. The Germans rushed, in his opinion, to the other extreme; they were too mystical. Not in a rejoicing mood or in a triumphant condition did Saint-Simon regain his native land: he was nearly destitute. During the Reign of Terror he had furnished shelter to Count De Ségur. He now applied to Ségur, picturing the depth of his distress. Ségur was not in a hurry to oblige his benefactor: he kept him waiting six months, and then procured him a clerkship worth a thousand francs a year. For this small salary Saint-Simon had to drudge nine hours a day. But a friend unexpectedly appeared. This was M. Diard, to whom Saint-Simon as employer had, in his hour of prosperity, been bountiful, and who was now bountiful in his turn. He invited Saint-Simon to his house, supplied all his wants, and it was with Diard's money that Saint-Simon's strange productions were printed. Diard's death in 1810 threw Saint-Simon for a season into more terrible poverty than he had yet borne. He was advised to appeal to the emperor. The appeal was made, but it was fruitless, as the emperor was told that Saint-Simon was a madman. Count De Redern was living in splendour and luxury at Alençon on the enormous wealth of which Saint-Simon had been the creator. At Alençon Saint-Simon sought the count, begged for succour, and begged in vain. Some members of Saint-Simon's family at Péronne were more merciful; he was taken care of by them during a dangerous illness, which had been brought on by anxiety and something closely akin to starvation. An annuity was likewise settled on him. Saint-Simon's indomitable pertinacity at last attracted disciples, not a few of whom, such as Augustin Thierry and Auguste Comte, themselves became famous. For the diffusion of the Saint-Simonian ideas a periodical called the Organisateur was started at the end of 1819. In March, 1820, Saint-Simon was tried for a supposed attack in his periodical on the royal family. The jury, however, acquitted him. Old age was creeping on, with little to brighten it. Saint-Simon never for a moment wavered in loyalty to his faith. But there was no promise of immediate results. Overcome by gloomiest despondency, Saint-Simon attempted in the spring of 1823 to shoot himself through the head. The ball inflicted a horrible wound, but did not kill him. One of his eyes was, however, destroyed. He survived for two years, and after an illness of six weeks, he died on the 19th May, 1825. It was not till Saint-Simon had been for some time in his grave, that Saint-Simonianism was organized as a system. Its career was as brief as it was brilliant. But Socialism is not dead in France; and in the February revolution there were profound socialistic elements. The most devoted and affectionate of Saint Simon's disciples, Olinde Rodrigues, had prepared a complete edition of the master's works. The sudden decease of Rodrigues has delayed the undertaking.—W. M—l.
SAINT-SIMON, Louis de Rouvroy, Duc de, the author of those memoirs which reveal more exactly than any other book the unvarnished features of the French court during the old age of Louis XIV. and the regency of the duke of Orleans, was born on the 16th of January, 1675. After careful education at home he was admitted by the king, who was his godfather, into the regiment of musketeers, and making his first campaign in 1692 under the duke of Luxemburg, was at the siege of Namur, and the battles of Fleurus and Nerwinde. After the peace of Ryswick he resigned his commission in the army, because he had not
