of which the most esteemed were entitled "Rubena," "Don Duardos," and "Amadis de Gaul." His works were collected and published after his death by his son in 1562; a second edition appeared in 1586. Both editions became so scarce that they may almost be said to have disappeared; but the works of Vicente were republished in 1834 at Hamburg, divided into five classes: the autos, comedies, tragi-comedies, farces, and lyrical pieces. His farces, according to Bouterwek, are the best of his works; but later critics have not endorsed this opinion. Vicente preceded by a century Lope de Vega and Calderon; and his reputation was so wide-spread that Erasmus learnt Portuguese in order to read his works. He died probably in 1536. He left a son, Luis, who collected his works, and a daughter, Paula, an accomplished poetess and musician. The statement that he had another son, of whose literary reputation he was jealous, is unfounded.—F. M. W.
VICO, Giovanni Battista, one of the profoundest thinkers and writers of modern times, was the son of a bookseller, and was born at Naples in 1668. He was brought up to no special profession, although he early evinced a peculiar aptitude for jurisprudence. But he was an insatiable reader, an earnest and laborious student, particularly of ancient literature. In 1697 he became professor of rhetoric in the university of Naples, on a scanty salary; yet neither domestic cares and troubles (of which he had much more than the average share), nor professional disappointments, could subdue his ardour or cloud his intellect. His great work, the "Principi di una Scienza Nuova," on which he had been for many years engaged, was published at Naples in 1725. Several other editions followed during the author's lifetime; but his temporal advancement was not commensurate with the popularity his work achieved. Intense study and domestic cares broke him down at last; and he died on the 20th January, 1744. The fate of Vico's book was somewhat singular. After his death it appears to have fallen into an oblivion, from which it was rescued only at a comparatively recent period. Michelet, for example, first made it known in England by the able exposition of its doctrines in his Principes de la Philosophie de l'Histoire, published at Paris in 1827. This work attracted the notice of English thinkers, and Vico's treatise was at once recognized as a production of genius. The "Scienza Nuova" is a deep and pregnant philosophy of history. "Vico's chief and peculiar merit," says one of his best expounders in our own country, "is that which the title of his book expresses—the conception of a new science; a science of human nature generalized from the facts of human history, a science whose function it is to indicate those universal moral characteristics which mark the social and political revolutions of nations under widely different circumstances of climate, government, religion, and manners." His principal object is to abstract the necessary from the accidental, the eternally and universally true from the casually and partially real, and thus to trace that ideal history which is ever reproducing itself in all particular actual histories. He looks, in short, into the depths of history through facts, events, institutions, ideas, and laws of ideas; and this is, after all, the true principle of historical growth and progress. Bossuet, in his Histoire Universelle, may be said to have pioneered the way for every subsequent attempt at a philosophy of history, inasmuch as a golden thread of connection runs through the entire course of his work, the all-pervading providence of God; but Vico was the first who raised that new branch of human learning to the dignity of a systematic science. And however unsatisfactory or obscure may not unfrequently seem the author's reasonings and conclusions, there can be no doubt that the "Scienza Nuova" contains much profound philosophic truth, and that it is one of the most suggestive books of the eighteenth century. Vico's other works are of little importance.—J. J.
VICQ, Henri de. Lord of Osthou and of Warnau in Flanders, was born at Valenciennes in Hainault in 1536. In his youth he combined the study of philosophy and theology with that of jurisprudence. His end in so pursuing his studies was, as himself informs us, that he might in the first place follow his native inclination, and in the second be useful to his friends, his family, and any person he could in this way serve. This benevolent and noble scholar, though a married man, publicly supported certain theological theses at Ypres, in presence of Martin Rythow the bishop, and a large assemblage of learned men. He received the degree of doctor of laws from the university of Douai immediately after its establishment. De Vicq afterwards travelled in Italy, and on his return settled at Berg-Sant-Vinox, where he remained twelve years. The religious troubles, however, forced him at last to remove from that place. He went to Armentières, where he spent the rest of his life in this world in such studies as naturally look to its continuation in another. He died on the 12th of March, 1596, and was buried at Nipkerk, in the tomb of his ancestors. He was author of the following works—"De Sacramentorum Christianorum natura, officiis, ac numero," Louvain, 1571; "De Descensu Christi ad Inferos," Anvers, 1586; "Apologié des Saintes Images," in French; "De Communione Sanctorum, sive controversiarum hujus temporis liber singularis," Arras, 1598; "Consilium quo ostendit è re fore Ecclesiæ Christianæ, ut in locum sententiarum Petri Lombardi, in scholis apud opus substituatur ad hæreses perimendas accommodatius," Douai, 1596.—R. M., A.
VICQ-D'AZYR, Felix, a French physician, born at Valogne in 1748. After studying philosophy at Caen and medicine at Paris, he received license to practise in 1773, and shortly afterwards began to deliver lectures on comparative anatomy during the vacation. He became a very popular lecturer, but he was obliged to discontinue his course on account of a dispute with the Faculty. In 1774 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences; and through the influence of Lassonne was sent to investigate a murrain which was raging among the cattle in the south of France. With the co-operation of Lassonne, on his return he formed the scheme of establishing a society for investigating epidemics, &c. The Royal Society of Medicine, founded in 1776, was established on their plan, and Vicq-D'Azyr was appointed perpetual secretary. Although this engaged him in several disputes with the Faculty of Medicine, his numerous essays and other literary works gained him increasing celebrity, and in 1788 he was appointed to succeed Buffon in the French Academy. The éloge which he pronounced upon his predecessor is one of the most remarkable of all his works. He succeeded Lassonne as head physician to the queen in 1789, and it is said that his devotion to her, through continual anxiety, caused his health to fail. In order to avert suspicion he took part with the followers of Robespierre in the festival of the Supreme Being, but returned home ill; the next day he was delirious, and died on the 20th of June, 1794. The works of Vicq-D'Azyr are very numerous. Nearly all of them, together with his éloges, were collected by Moreau de la Sarthe, a physician, and published in 6 vols. 8vo, and one in 4to of plates in 1805.—W. J. P.
VICTOR, otherwise PERRIN, Claude, Duke of Belluno and Marshal of France, was the son of a country tipstaff, and was born at La Marche in the old Duchy of Bar on the 7th of December, 1764. In October, 1781, he entered the 4th regiment of artillery as a private soldier, and when his period of service had expired in 1791, he settled at Valence, where he enrolled himself in the national guard. About a year afterwards he was appointed deputy-adjutant to a battalion of volunteers, and was rapidly promoted until he became chief of the battalion. In this rank he began active service, and went through the Italian campaigns of 1792 and 1793 with great credit. At the siege of Toulon, at the close of 1793, his gallantry procured him from the directory the grade of brigadier-general and brought him into contact with Napoleon, who was destined to exercise a still more important influence on his career. During the two following years he served with the army of the Pyrenees, then passed over into Italy, where amid many other feats of arms, he greatly signalized himself in the actions fought near Mantua in January, 1797, and earned the rank of general of division. By the occupation of Ancona in the following month he contributed potentially to the treaty of Tolentino between France and the pope. His vigorous repression of anti-Gallic feeling in the Venetian states paved the way for the partition of the ancient republic, which was accomplished by the treaty of Campo Formio. Returning home he held a brief command at Nantes, but at the close of 1798 he was again leading French troops in Italy, and succeeded in annexing Piedmont to France. Defeated under unlucky commanders-in-chief at Magnano on the 5th of April, 1799; at Bassignano on the 12th of May; on the Trebia and on the Nura in June; at Beinette and Genola in October and November—he obtained a glorious revenge under Napoleon at Montebello, 8th June, 1800, and at Marengo six days afterwards. He received a sword of honour, and was appointed to the command of the army of Batavia. After the peace of Amiens he was sent as plenipotentiary to Denmark, and took no part in the war in Germany in 1805. He served through the Prussian
