207
Assurbanipal as a warrioress, behung with bow and quiver ("Hebraica," ix. 162); while Zidonian coins picture her standing on the prow of a galley and pointing forward as though guiding the vessel on its way. Other local circumstances gave her many other forms. Thus, in Saboea she was identified with the sun and the morning star at Mecca and in Assyria, with Venus; and at Zidon, with the
moon. Schrader ("C. I. O. T." 2d ed.), Sayce ("Hibbert Lect." 252), and Driver (Hastings' "Diet, of the Bible ") hold to the non-Semitic origin of this cult. Paul Haupt ("Z. D. M. G." 34, 758 et seq.), Zimmern ("Bab. Buss." 38), Friedrich Delitzsch ("Assyrian Grammar," p. 181), Moore ("Encyc. Bib."), G. Hoffmann (" Uefoer Einige PhOnizische Inschriften," 22?i), and Barton (" Heb. " x. 69 et seq. ) have argued on the other side. It is hardly possible that the most universally worshiped of Semitic divinities should have been of non-Semitic origin. It appears plausible to assume that the goddess originated in Arabia in primitive Semitic times in connection with the culture of the date-palm, and that, as the Semites migrated, she was transplanted to the different countries (compare Barton, " Semitic Origins," ch. iii.-v.). See
Astarte. Movers, Die Phdnizier, 1850, 1. 559-650; Baetbgen, Beitrdge zur Semitiachen BeligUmsgeschichte, 1888; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., 1894, pp. 310, 355, 471 et seq. Barton, Ashtoreth and Her Influence in the Old Testament, in Journal of Biblical Literature, x. 73 et seq. ; idem, The Semitic Ishtar Cult, in Hebraica, ix. 133-163, x. 1-74: idem, Sketch of Semitic Origins, 1902.
Bibliography:
J.
G. A. B.
jr.
ASHTXJMKAR, REUBEN DHONDJI
Beni-
born near Bombay, India, about 1820 He entered military service in the Eighth Regiment native infantry on March 5, 1839. He participated in the pursuit of the rebel army under Tantia ToIsrael, soldier
pee in Gujarat, 1857-58. He was present at the engagement of Hykullze, and served with a field force against the Niakara Bheels in the Rewa Kanta district in 1857-58. He served in the Sind
campaign har.
He
march to KandaAshtumkar was 1856; subedar on June 7,
in 1842, including the was also in Abyssinia.
appointed jemidar Jan.
1,
1858; and was raised to the rank of subedar-major Jan. 1, 1870. He was decorated with the Order of British India of the second class, with the title of bahadur on Oct. 27, 1872, and the same Order of the first class with the title of sirdar bahadur from
Jan.
Ashtoreth
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
1,
1877.
Ashura
They answered, 'It is an "excellent day," the day on which God saved Israel from their enemy, whereupon Moses fasted. Said he, I have a nearer claim to Moses than you have then he fasted and commanded others to fast also" (Bukhari, ed. Krehl, i. '
'
'
497).
Mohammed fixed upon the tenth of Muharram as the Ashura day. This leaning toward the Jews was evidently displeasing to some of the followers of the Prophet. " They said, O Prophet, it is a day celebrated by Jews and Christians (the last two words are a senseless addition of later times). He answered, Then, let us celebrate it on the ninth, in order to distinguish ourselves from the Jews but the next year at this time the Prophet was already dead." Some say that, in order to distinguish it from the Jewish fast, Mohammed said, " Fast on the ninth and the tenth " according to others, " Fast on Ashura, but fast also on the day before and the day Another tradition is that he after." Conflicting' did not want it celebrated in as joyous Traditions, a manner as did the Jews, who were accustomed to deck out their wives with their finest jewelry and dresses. But there were those who, according to the commentators to the Koran (sura ii. 46), connected the original celebration of Ashura with Noah, who was said to have landed on Mt. Judi on the tenth of Muharram and, out of thankfulness, to have fasted on that day (Baidawi, Comm. on Koran, i. 435; '
'
'
'
Al-Kashshaf," i. 614). Still others, Zamahshari, according to traditions gathered by Al-Biruni, said that on this day God took compassion on Adam; Jesus was born; Moses was saved from Pharaoh, '-'
and Abraham from the fire of Nebuchadnezzar; Jacob regained his eyesight Joseph was drawn out of the ditch Solomon was invested with the royal power; the punishment was taken away from the people of Jonah; Job was freed from his plagues; the prayer of Zacharias was granted, and John was born to him (Al-Biruni, " Al-Athar al-Bakiyyah," ed.
Sachau,
p. 326).
at a later period, turned away instituted the Ramadan fast as a counterpart of the Christian Lent, the Ashura became a non-obligatory fast-day. As such it is still celebrated in Mohammedan countries,
When Mohammed,
from the Jews and
In called "The Little Fast." the " blessed storax " is sold on Obligatory, the streets, and the venders cry, "A New Year and a blessed Ashura " It and the belief is that is the season for giving alms " Upon him who gives plenty to his household on the day of Ashura, God will bestow plenty throughout the remainder of the year. " The day is held in especial honor by the Shiites as the anniversary of the battle of Kerbelah (680), on which day the proto-
Becomes
and
is
Egypt
non-
!
J-
j.
Hy.
(the " tenth " day) A fast-day among Mohammedans, observed on the tenth day of the month Muharram, and derived from the Jewish Day
ASHTJRA
the
of Atonement, celebrated on the tenth of Tishri The name is an Aramaic (Lev. xvi. 29, xxiii. 27). " Asor " (the tenth), still form of the Hebrew word poem for the Day of liturgical a in found to be Atonement (non "IIB^ "WJ> n*ttX, M. Sachs, "Fest'
gebete der Israeliten," 4th ed., pt. iv. 88). Mohammedan tradition is a unit on the assertion that the Prophet knew nothing of the Atonement
Day until he came to Medina in 622. " When Mohammed came to Medina, he saw that the Jews fasted upon the day Ashura. Said he, 'What is this?'
martyr Al-Husain was killed, and the moon shone for seventy-two hours (Browne, "New History of the Bab," 1893, p. 195).
AUTamg f
-?«?!»», ed. Krehl i. 286 Buhari, 98-103, Cairo, 1867; 472,473, 497; Muslim, Matn al-Sahihm. 1879 : AlMa ik ion Anas, Al-Muwatta p. 91, Lueknow, Al-T im. dhi, 1P68; Bulak, Kastalan"Aharta(-Snrt,iii.-482, %hfima-n al-Nahi i 145, Bulak, 1875; Al-Biruni, Al-Athar (Eng transl. pp 326 ed Sachau, pp. Bffl'.ef se al-Btlad,i. 67 et et seq.), reproduced by Al-Kazwini, Athar (German transl. by Etbe, pp. 139 et seq.). Compare
Bibliography
IfBam mh seq.
f
