institutions and the social, moral, and religious conceptions are, however, often considered as part of Ethnology. By "Anthropological School" we mean those who, in the second half of the nineteenth century, studied the origins and evolution of conceptions and social institutions from the point of view of natural science, without appealing to super natural intuition, and without trying to conceal the gaps in our knowledge by vague and incomprehensible metaphysical words.
Babeuf, François Noël (1764–1797), French Communist, took part in the Revolution, and published a paper, Tribun du Peuple, in which he preached the social revolution. After the fall of the Robespierre party, he organised, with Sylvain Maréchal, Darthé, and several others, a secret Communist society, which inteuded to overthrow the Government and to constitute a Communist Directorate. The conspiracy was betrayed, and the leaders were shot in 1797.
Bacon, Francis (1561–1626), great English philosopher, known as the father of the "inductive" method of scientific research, because he was the first to show that research and discovery will only be able to progress when the human mind has grown accustomed to consider observation and free, methodical, experimental research as the only means to discover natural laws and the true causes of phenomena. Scholastic wisdom, which only juggled with words, had to be given up, and true knowledge be acquired through induction—i.e., through the closest study of the separate phenomena themselves, before generalisations are "induced." This was the fundamental idea of all his work, and this is why Bacon is truly considered as the father of modern science. (See below, "Inductive-Deductive ethod.”)
Bain, Alexander (born 1818), one of the chief English representatives of physiological psychology. His chief works were: "Mind and Body," "The Senses and the Intellect."
Bakunin, Michael (1814–1876), political writer and an indefatigable revolutionist. Took part in all the revolutionary and Socialist movements of his own times, in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, and Poland. Had a prominent part in the Dresden revolution of 1849. Was condemned after its defeat to lifelong imprisonment, and extradited by the Saxon Government to Austria. After a two years' confinement in an Austrian fortress, where he was chained to the wall, he was surrendered to the Russian Tsar, Nicholas I., who kept him imprisoned in the fortress of St. Petersburg till 1856. Released after the death of Nicholas I., he was banished to Siberia, where he was very well received by the then Governor-General of Eastern Siberia, N. Muravioff-Amursky. Escaping from Vladivostok in 1862, he came to London, and took the liveliest part in the European revolutionary agitation. He soon became a member of the International Working Men's Association, joining the Jura Federation, which, in opposition to the General Council of the International, was the stronghold of the Federalist, anti-Statist, revolutionary, and