introspection, but must look for its support to the alleged effect of pain upon the circulatory and respiratory movements, and upon the tonus of the voluntary muscles under certain experimental conditions. These conditions are by no means immediately comparable with normal circumstances. One of the first and most persistent effects of pain is a violent motor overflow, directed, it is true, to escape from the stimulus, but resulting none the less on that account in the production of movements which may readily furnish a basis for subsequent useful coördinations of protection and flight. Surely the singed cat that dreads the fire has acquired a useful coordination from excess movements that were not called out by any thrills of pleasure. Moreover, the unpleasantness connected with effortful activity seems to be given scant justice in such a statement as that which Mr. Baldwin propounds. Indeed, the theory is classic, even if not popular, which looks to pain as the prime mover in human affairs. On the other hand, pleasure is by no means the invariable antecedent of overproduced movements. Many pleasures are distinctly narcotizing in their immediate effects. In Mr. Baldwin's statements about pleasure and pain, there appears to be a confusion between the ultimate effects of these psychical elements upon motor power, and their immediate effects upon the profusion of movements which they occasion. Though it should be admitted that all pain is at once followed by depressed vitality, and all pleasure by increased vitality, it would not necessarily follow, and, indeed, it is not true, that all pain produces immediate decrease of movement and all pleasure increase. The contrary is surely much the more frequent and more immediate result, and it is the immediate consequences which are of crucial importance in leading to the establishment of useful reactions. It will be seen that I call in question simply the modus operandi of pleasure and pain in Mr. Baldwin's description. The importance of the affective factors I do not doubt, but his analysis of their operation seems to me precisely to invert certain relations.
A final point which requires notice, and to which the last chapter of Mr. Baldwin's book is devoted, is the development of a theory of genetic modes, a heading under which the author indulges his readers in a dash through wide fields of metaphysics. The problem treated is an old one; but Mr. Baldwin, as is his wont, has touched it in an extremely fresh and suggestive manner, and it is sincerely to be hoped that he will at an early date elaborate it more fully. As it stands now, the doctrine is somewhat puzzling both to expounder and critic. One hesitates to put it briefly lest one distort it. Nevertheless, acknow-
