prohibiting the exports of all kinds of cereals except wheat, and in November the prohibition was extended to wheat. As Germany obtained more than eighty-five per cent of its imported rye and more than half of its imported wheat from Russia, the measure was at once reflected in the prices of grain throughout Europe. The first explanation was that Russia sought to retaliate on Germany for the open hostility of Bismarck to Russian financial operations in Germany; but this explanation was based upon a mere supposition, and one that could not account for the general condition of the wheat market outside of Germany. The true reason came to light slowly, and in spite of the efforts of the Russian Government to conceal the gravity of the situation. It was a true famine from which Russia suffered. Both the spring and winter wheat gave very unsatisfactory returns, and one third of the provinces were appealing to the Government for the means to feed their people. The harrowing descriptions of extreme sufferings, of fearful destruction of men and cattle throughout the stricken regions, and of the comparative impotency of the administration to cope with the emergency, startled the civilized world, and brought aid even from the United States. So great a deficiency in Russia as almost to prohibit exports was aggravated by the very poor returns of grain crops throughout Europe. The price of a pood of wheat at four great markets of Russia was:
| 1890 Kopecks. |
1891. Kopecks. |
1893. Kopecks. |
1893. Kopecks. |
1894 Kopecks. | |
| St Petersburg | 96.5 | 118.4 | 114.6 | 99.4 | 78.9 |
| Riga | 94.5 | 118 | 118.9 | 96.0 | 71.8 |
| Odessa | 89.2 | 107 | 89.8 | 71.3 | 58.5 |
| Saratow | 74.2 | 105.3 | 106 | 82.8 | 28.8 |
This range of prices is sufficient to warrant the name of famine year to 1891, an experience from which Russia did not recover until 1894, and from which important lessons in administration were drawn.
Scarcely had the full effects of the deficiency of 1891 been realized when a new complication arose in the serious commercial rupture with Germany. A treaty of commerce was in process of negotiation between the two powers. German manufacturers, who enjoyed a large market in Russia, complained that discriminating duties were imposed upon their products on the frontiers, and commercial treaties with other states were imposing obstacles on their operations. Russia assumed that Germany was dependent upon her for cereals, and desired as liberal concessions on grain as were given to any outside power. Germany had determined to yield no point
