tively correct apparatus such as would be found in first-class stores. Aside from these and by far the larger individual losses are those resulting from the use of false weights and measures and intentional cheating either with false or comparatively correct apparatus. False apparatus is generally very crude in construction and may easily be detected upon examination, although in some cases test with standards are necessary. The users of such apparatus depend to escape detection upon the unsuspecting attitude of the purchaser and their own dexterity in handling the apparatus. Methods of cheating and false apparatus represent wide varieties. Among the different types of false measures might be mentioned those having movable or false bottoms; measures having a portion of the height cut away from either the top or bottom; measures with staves removed and the hoops and bottom adjusted accordingly; "bottomless" measures which have relatively small diameters and high sides, and which, although they contain the proper number of cubic inches, give incorrect quantities on account of not permitting of a proper heap; measures with false interiors, such as have been found in milk cans and measures for selling gasoline; and liquid measures used for dry commodities. This last practise is found in use to some extent in practically all parts of the country and results in a shortage of about 14 per cent. It is one of those practises which has come into use largely through "trade custom." The use of correct scales of high quality is not in itself a guarantee that correct amounts will be given, for it is possible for the user of such apparatus to manipulate it to his own advantage; but it is usually with the poorer apparatus and small dealers where intentional fraud is found. A type of scale which was formerly common among certain classes of dealers is the straight-face hand scale, with the graduated face made movable so that the dealer might lower or raise it so as to make the pointer indicate a lesser or greater amount than actually was the case, according as he was buying or selling. Even-arm balances of cheap construction may be made to vary considerably by placing the weights and commodity in certain positions on the pans, which is done in an apparently unintentional manner by the dealer and which would not be noticed by the customer unless he were familiar with the action of such scales. Counter-beam scales with a movable scoop and counterpoise may very easily be used fraudulently by omitting the counterpoise when the scoop is in place. These are a few of many ways in which apparatus designed to give correct results may be changed or used to give incorrect amounts.
The results of the investigations, which were furnished to the state and local officials, were an important factor in convincing the legislatures of the states that the state laws and the facilities provided for carrying them out were in most cases entirely inadequate to protect the public not only from the use of fraudulent apparatus, but also the fraudulent use of correct apparatus. The wide publicity given in some
