to absorb the thawing snow and to prevent it being swept into the gullies and hollow places by the wind. On some of the Russian steppes it has become customary to leave a long stubble in order to entangle as much snow as possible, but probably a rough ploughing before the snowfall would be even more effective. When the rainfall drops to the region of 12 to 16 inches and occurs during the summer months, then dry-farming methods and the summer fallow become of the first importance. The deep cultivation ensures that the water gets quickly down to the subsoil away from danger of evaporation, and the immediate renewal of a loose surface tilth is essential in order to conserve what has thus been gained.
In connection with this dry-farming there are several matters that still require investigation before we can decide what is the minimum rainfall on which cultivation can be profitable. In the first place, we are only imperfectly informed as to the relation between rainfall and evaporation. At Rothamsted there are three drain-gauges side by side, the soil layers being 20, 40 and 60 inches deep, respectively. The surface is kept rough and free from growth, though hardly in the condition of looseness that could be described as a soil mulch. Yet the evaporation, even under a moist English atmosphere, amounts to one half of the annual rainfall, and the significant thing is that the evaporation is approximately the same from all of the gauges and is independent of the depth of subsoil within which water is stored. Evaporation then would seem to be determined by surface alone, but we are without systematic experiments to show how variations in the surface induced by cultivation will alter the rate of evaporation. A knowledge of the evaporation factor would then inform us of what proportion of the rainfall reaches the subsoil; we then want to know to what extent it can be recovered and how far it may sink beyond the reach of the crop. It is commonly supposed that the subsoil below the actual range of the roots of the crop may still return water by capillarity to the higher levels that are being depleted, the deeper subsoil thus acting as a kind of regulating reservoir absorbing rain in times of excess and returning it when the need arises. But some work of Leather's in India and Alway's on the great plains of North America throw doubt on this view, and would suggest that only the layer traversed by roots, say, down to a depth of 6 feet, can supply water to the crop; the water movements from the deeper layers due to capillarity being too slow to be of much effect in the maintenance of the plant. The evidence on either side is far from being conclusive and more experiment is very desirable.
It would also be valuable to know how far evaporation from the bare soil can be checked by suitable screens or hedges that will break the sweep of the wind across the land. In England hedges have always been looked at from the point of view of shelter from stock; we find them most developed in the grazing districts of the west, while bare
