French organist. Under wealthy patronage he first attempted a Biblical opera (libretto by Voltaire), which was not accepted at the Opéra, and his Hippolyte et Aricie (1733), though undeniably powerful, so far failed that he almost gave up dramatic writing. From 1735 till 1760, however, he wrote opera after opera with increasing success, Castor et Pollux (1737), Dardanus (1739) and Zoroastre (1749) being the largest, with nearly 20 others of the ballet-opera type, of which Les Indes galantes (1735) was the most popular. Gradually his prestige displaced that of Lully, though their styles were not radically different. Both used much declamatory recitative, many dance-numbers, the tripartite overture, many arias with more decoration than organic strength, etc. Lully had the keener dramatic sense, but Rameau was musically more gifted. He also made a freer use of the chorus. He was beset by continual controversy and intrigue, but his industry and vigor were unflagging. (For his other works, see secs. 138, 141.)
Other names are Jean Joseph Cassanea de Mondonville (d. 1772), a violinist from 1737, leader at the Concerts spirituels and from 1755 conductor, in the royal band and from 1745 at its head, with 9 light operas, 3 oratorios and some motets (from 1742); Jean Jacques Rousseau (d. 1778), the philosopher and theorist (see sec. 141), of whose few dramatic works (from 1745) Le devin du village (1752) achieved a signal success, while his later Pygmalion (1770) became the prototype of the melodrama, both being marked by melodic beauty; Antoine Dauvergne (d. 1797), a violinist at the court and the Opéra from about 1740 and Mondonville's successor at the Concerts spirituels in 1762, with 15 works (from 1752), chief of which were Les troqueurs (1753), usually called the first opéra comique (with spoken dialogue), Énée et Lavinie (1758), etc.; and the Italian Duni (d. l775),who arrived in 1755 and exerted a strong influence on the opéra bouffe in general (see sec. 126).
In 1752 broke out the curious strife between Italian and French partisans, known as the 'Guerre des buffons,' which was occasioned by the advent of an Italian troupe with their own repertory of works and with singers trained in the fine art of vocalization. Their side was championed by the critics Grimm, Diderot and Rousseau, and the court, the press and the public for two years or more were sharply divided into two parties, between which the literary and social antagonism was intense (expressed, for instance, in some 60 pamphlets). The Italians ranged themselves under the name of the queen, the French under that of the king, and each sought by every means to discredit the other. The French party ultimately triumphed and the historic opéra comique followed. In this contest a prominent figure was Jean Georges Noverre (d. 1810), known throughout Europe as a dancer, who strengthened the dramatic quality of the ballet and wrote a noted book on dancing (1760).
128. The Opera in Germany.—It seems as if Hamburg should have led in significant operatic progress in northern Europe, since there were brought together the singspiel, the Italian opera and certain French ideas as to instrumental music. It is true that in some cases German opera-writers showed dra-
