At St. Petersburg the series consists of Anton Rubinstein (d. 1894), who served in 1862-7 and again in 1887-91, in 1867-71 Nicolai Zaremba (d. 1879), in 1871-6 Michael Asanchewski (d. 1881), in 1876-87 Karl Davidow (d. 1889), in 1892-7 Julius Johannsen (d. 1904), and since 1898 August Bernhardt. At Turin in 1868-82 Carlo Pedrotti (d. 1893) was an energetic organizer, followed now by Giovanni Bolzoni. At Moscow the names are Nicolai Rubinstein (d. 1881), in 1881-3 Nicolai Hubert (d. 1888), in 1883-5 Konstantin Karl Albrecht (d. 1893), in 1885-9 Sergei Tanéjew and since 1889 Wassili Safonow. At Antwerp the first director was Peter Benoît (d. 1901), followed by Jan Blockx.
226. Certain Pedagogical Specialties.—Both within and without
the conservatories much enterprise was shown in improving
or extending pedagogical organization and method. Into the
detail of most of this we cannot here enter. But certain movements
deserve mention because of their wide effects.
From 1800 onward, extensive public school systems steadily developed in all the principal countries, and in many cases, especially in Germany and France, urgent advocates appeared for the practice of singing as a part of the ordinary curriculum. The end in view was simply to give enough elementary facility in musical facts and action so that children should grow up with some readiness to use song in common life with ease and delight, but it was also clearly seen that the psychological and moral effects of singing upon the child-mind were valuable. This general movement was not so much directed by musical enthusiasts for the special furtherance of their art as made a part of the new zeal for systematic and well-rounded popular education. But in its gradual development, with the special methods, text-books and literature which it called forth, it came to have decided importance in several countries as a foundation upon which artistic progress could rest.
In Germany this movement was interlocked with that which aimed at
the improvement of popular song in church services. From about 1810
there was a marked revival of interest in liturgies in the Lutheran church,
and hence congregational singing naturally attracted attention. The
parallel interest in such singing in America from about 1820 was slightly
connected with this German movement.
Plans for class-instruction in singing raised questions about
simplifying musical notation. The close association of the staff-notation
with the keyboard had made its development more
adapted to the needs of playing than of singing. It was felt
