Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume I.djvu/659

ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 023 the vowel signs are frequently omitted either wholly or in part. There are several forms of the Arabic character, of which the Cufic, so called from the city of Cufah, the seat of one of the early grammatical schools, was the first to gain general currency, though from an early date the neskhi or copy-hand was in use, and since the 10th century has been the prevailing form. Of the remaining forms, some, as the Maghrebine or Moorish, have a local currency, and others are employed for special uses. The Arabic alphabet has gained a wide vogue be- yond the limits of the language, having been adopted by the Persian, Afghan, Hindostani, Turkish, Malay, and in quite recent times by the Berber and other African dialects. The original defects of the alphabet are seriously aggravated when it is applied to languages of different families. Grammar was the first of the sciences cultivated by the Arabs, the special motive being the necessity for fixing the text of the Koran ; and though it soon reached the limit of its development among them, it always remained a favorite study. The earliest gram- matical work which has been preserved is that of Sibawaih, about 780 ; one of the most cele- brated, the subject of numerous commentaries, is the Alfiya (so called because composed of 1,000 verses) of Ibn Malek, who died in 1273 (Arabic by Dieterici, Leipsic, 1851 ; Arabic and French by De Sacy, Paris, 1833). Of those by European scholars, the best are by De Sacy (2d ed., Paris, 1831) and Ewald (Leipsic, 1831- '3). Among grammars devoted to the spoken idioms may be mentioned those of Caussin de Perceval (Paris, 1835), Marcel (on the Afri- can dialects generally, 2d ed., Paris, 1869), and Pihan (dialect of Algiers, Paris, 1851). Of the native dictionaries, the chief are the Sihah of Al-Jauhari (died about 1007) ; the Lisan el-Arab of Ibn Mukarram (died 1311) ; the Kdmus of Firuzabadi (died 1414), containing 60,000 words (printed at Calcutta, 1817, and at Cairo, 1864) ; and the Taj el-Arils, an enormous compilation, of which the Kdmus forms only about a seventh part, made at Cairo in the last century. The materials of the large Arabic-English lexicon of Lane, now in progress (Parts i. to iii., Lon- don, 1863-'7), are drawn mainly from the last- mentioned work. Among the other European lexicographers, the chief are Golius (Leyden, 1653) and Freytag (Halle, 1830-'37). The Arabs have produced a literature of vast ex- tent, and after large reductions from the ex- travagant estimate sometimes put upon it, a very high value must still be allowed it. It commences with poetry. The oldest remains, in which however the characteristic form and style of Arabic poetry appear already fully developed, go back about a century before Mo- hammed. With the Koran a new era begins in literary as well as in political history. The Koran was to the orthodox believer not only the rule of faith, but also the highest authority in law, the perfect model in point of style not simply inspired, but uncreated and eternal. Un- der the Ommiyade dynasty of Damascus, what there was of literary activity was concentrated mainly on the Koran, the establishing of the text and interpretation, and on the preserva- tion of the traditions of the prophet. The fol- lowing century, under the Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad, Al-Mansour, Haroun al-Rashid, Al- Mamoun, and Motassem, was the most flourish- ing period of Arabic literature. Greek philos- ophy and science were introduced, mainly through the agency of Syrian Christians, and through the medium of translations, made for the most part not directly from the Greek, but from the Syriac. Law, history, and geography were cultivated, schools and libraries estab- lished, rewards bestowed on poets and scholars. In this patronage of literature the princes of the Ommiyade dynasty in Spain, especially Hakem II. (96,1-976), were worthy rivals. After the capture of Bagdad by the Mongols in 1258 the literary spirit gradually declined, and for the last three centuries little has been pro- duced but commentaries on the older literature, and some works of an encyclopaedic character. The field in which the Arabs have shown most originality is unquestionably poetry, and its golden age was the century before Mohammed. Of the poems of this period, the most cele- brated are the seven Moallakdt, so called, ac- cording to the common but doubtful tradition, because they were "suspended" in the Caaba at Mecca, an honor bestowed on such as carried off the prize in the poetical contests. They have been frequently published, both together (Arabic by Arnold, Leipsic, 1850 ; English by Sir William Jones) and separately. One of the seven, Amrulkais (German by Riickert, Stutt- gart, 1843), holds a first place among all the Arabic poets. Three others deserve to rank with these, Nabiga, Alkana, and Al-Asha ; the first two published by Ahlwardt in " Divans of Six Ancient Arabic Poets " (London, 1870). Specimens of many other early poets are found in the Hamdsa of Abu Temam (Arabic and Latin by Freytag, Bonn, 1828-'47 ; German by Ruckert, Stuttgart, 1846) ; in the ffamdsa of Bohtori, and in the Kitdb el-Aghdni of Ali of Ispahan (Arabic and Latin by Kosegarten, vol. i., Greifswald, 1840). Motanebbi, about the middle of the 10th century (Arabic by Dieterici, Berlin, 1861 ; German by Von Hammer, Vienna, 1824), is the greatest of the poets after the ad- vent of Mohammed. Arabic poetry is almost exclusively lyrical. Epic and dramatic poetry they have not, and the rhymed treatises on grammar and other prosaic subjects can hardly be classed with didactic poetry. In proverbs Arabic literature is rich, and several collections made by native authors, chief among which is that of Meidani, have been published by Frey- tag (Arabic and Latin, Bonn, 1838-'43), and a smaller collection by Burckhardt (Arabic and English, London, 1830). The Makamat of Hariri (Arabic by De Sacy, 2d ed., Paris, 1847-'53 ; English by Preston, London, 1850) is a collection of amusing adventures, narrated