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BELGIUM 489 which was opened in 1550. Ghent is connect- ed with the sea by a canal opening into the E. Scheldt, which admits vessels drawing 18 feet. The railways of Belgium were the earliest of continental Europe, and rapidly followed those of England, which they have surpassed in unity of design and economy of construction. The principal lines were built by the government. The aggregate length of railways in 1870 was 1,930 m. (against 550 in 1860), of which 1,426 belonged to private companies, and 504 to the state ; and 320 m. were in the course of con- struction. The receipts were upward of 40,- 000,000 francs, while the total cost of perma- nent construction had been 756,464,128 francs. Electric telegraphs have been in operation since March 15, 1851. In 1870 the aggregate length of the lines was 2,605 m., and of the wires, 8,293. The number of telegraph offices in 1869 was 433; their aggregate receipts, 1,323,596 fr. ; their expenditures, 1,298,915 fr. The agriculture of Belgium is not surpassed by that of any nation. The originally un- favorable soil has by generations of careful culture been raised to great productiveness. Large farms are rare, the subdivisions of the soil have been carried down to garden size, and less than -^ of the whole area of the kingdom is uprofitable. Flax is an object of peculiar care, and the Belgian system of culti- vation is studied everywhere. East and West Flanders alone produce flax to the value of $8,000,000 annually. The artificial grasses are also generally productive, while the production of root crops by artificial manure is matter of elaborate study and attention. Belgium is cel- ebrated for its horses, of which it possesses nearly 300,000. Those of the Ardennes are excellent cavalry horses, and those of Namur are famous draught horses. The number of cattle exceeds 1,200,000, and of sheep 700,000. The government pays special attention to the improvement of horses and cattle. In com- mercial pursuits and manufactures Belgium has long enjoyed the highest reputation. But the fame of her linens and woven goods had some- what deteriorated from the high estimation they enjoyed in the 14th century, until the separation from Holland. The lace of Brussels and Mechlin, the linens and damasks of Li6ge, the woollens of Ypres, the cotton goods, carpets, and hosiery of the country, compete with the productions of the French and English looms. The machine factory of Oockerill and company, founded at Li6ge in 1816, is one of the greatest works of the kind in Europe. Li6ge has a cannon foundery, and is noted for its manufactories of firearms. The foreign commerce of Belgium during its connection with Holland suffered for the sake of Amster- dam and Rotterdam, and .judicious plans of in- ternal improvement have since occupied the national attention. The entries at the Belgian ports, chiefly Antwerp and Ostend, in 1869, were 5,411 vessels, of 1,470,322 tons, and the clearances were 5,326 vessels, of 1,456,965 tons. The merchant navy in 1869 consisted of 67 sailing vessels, of 23,981 tons, and 12 steamers, of 8,762 tons. The number of fish- ing boats was 265, of 9,087 tons. The imports for the same year amounted to 903,600,000 fr. and the exports to 691,600,000 fr. The im- ports from the United States from July 1, 1869, to June 30, 1870, amounted to $6,600,- 000, and the exports to that country $3,140,- 000. The revenue of Belgium for 1870 was 176,725,000 fr., and the expenditure 176,812,- 836 fr. The budget for 1873 estimates the re- ceipts at 196,703,500 fr., and 1;he expenditures at 192,620,512 fr., the latter including 49,593,- 136 fr. for public debt, 53,202,054 fr. for pub- lic works, and 37,125,000 fr. for the army. The public debt, commenced by the assump- tion of 220,000,000 francs of the enormous debt of the kingdom of the Netherlands at the time of the separation, has been constantly increased by the construction of railways, the fortifications of Antwerp, extra military expen- diture in 1870, &c., and on May 1, 1870, con- sisted of 705,874,214 fr. The aggregate debts of the communes amounted to 126,319,085 fr. The military force of the kingdom, according to the law of April 5, 1868, consists on the war footing of 74,000 infantry, 6,530 cavalry, 14,513 artillery, 2,354 engineers, 1,373 gen- darmes; total, 98,770. The standing army on the peace footing numbered 38,970 men. Annually 10,000 men are enrolled by conscrip- tion, with the right of furnishing substitutes ; the time of military duty begins with the 19th year and lasts eight years, about one half of which is spent on furlough. The principal fortresses of the kingdom are those of Antwerp, Charleroi, Ostend, Ghent, and Namur. Besides the standing army, there is, in accordance with the laws of May, 1848, and July, 1853, a na- tional guard, which comprises all citizens be- tween 21 and 40 able to bear arms. It num- bers 125,000 men (and inclusive of the reserve 400,000), but is in active service only in towns having more than 10,000 inhabitants. The constitution of Belgium is a limited monarchy, with male succession, and in default of male issue the king may nominate his successor with consent of the chambers. The legislative body consists of a senate and house of repre- sentatives. The elective franchise is vested in citizens paying not less than 42 fr. annually of direct taxes. The house of representatives consists of deputies in the proportion of 1 to 40,000 of population. In 1869 the number of deputies was 116, chosen from 41 electoral dis- tricts. Citizenship is the sole qualification for representatives, and they are elected for four years (except in case of a dissolution), half re- tiring every two years. The senate has half the number of the house, elected by the citi- zens for eight years, half retiring every four years. The senatorial qualification is citizen- ship, domiciliation, 40 years of age, and pay- ment of direct taxes of at least 2,000 fr. annu- ally. The restriction created by this large