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132 BOTANY last 60 years. The parenchyma and woody fibre were also clearly distinguished by this remarkable botanist. Musa and Euphorbus, Roman physicians, published botanical obser- vations, and Pliny gives some interesting de- scriptions. For 1,700 years all botanical inves- tigation was at a standstill. The Arabians, it is true, travelled and collected plants; Wahab and Abu Seid went to China and described the tcha or tea plant; Masudi, Abulfeda, Batuta, and Averroes all made their contributions, and have generally been honored by having plants named after them. After the fall of Constan- tinople (1453), and the revival of letters conse- quent upon that event and the invention of printing, botanists were not satisfied with com- mentaries on Aristotle and Theophrastus, and made many new investigations. In Germany, Otto Brunfels first published good woodcuts of living plants in 1530 ; for those in the work incorrectly attributed to /Emilius Macer (1480), and even in that of Pietro de' Crescenzi, are all of inferior value. Leonhard Fuchs attempt- ed to arrange and illustrate the known plants of his time. Rauwolf travelled in the western part of Asia and collected many new plants. Prospero Alpini, Venetian consul at Cairo, and Melchior Guilandinus, explored Egypt. The discovery of the West Indies in 1492, and the doubling of the Cape of Good Hope five years later, opened new and rich botanical store- houses. Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1516-'65) established genera from the flower and fruit, and his attempt at classification was published by J. Camerarius in 1586, in a synopsis of the commentary of P. A. Matthioli, physician to the emperor of Germany. Charles de 1'Ecluse (Clusius), director of the imperial garden of Vienna, described accurately and elegantly many new plants, and was the best botanist up to his time (1526-1609). Lobelius of Lille (1538-1616) was the first to distinguish mono- cotyledonous from dicotyledonous plants. An- dreas Csesalpinus of Florence, physician to Pope Clement VIII., established (1583) a system of classification from fructification, divided trees according to the direction of the germ, made the distinction of sex in dioecious plants clearer by giving masculine names to staminate, femi- nine ones to pistillate individuals, and, what proved of more permanent benefit, analyzed several of the important organs of vegetation. Among the botanists of this period were Jaco- bus Theodoras Taberneemontanus, who repro- duced the figures of more than 3,000 species which had been already described ; his nephew, Joachim Jungermann ; Fabricius Colonna, who first published delicate copperplates of plants ; Ad. Zaluskianski, a Bohemian, who wrote on the sexes of plants and described the floral organs. Jean Bauhin of Basel, a pupil of Fuchs, laid out the garden of the duke of Wurtemberg at MontbIiard, and wrote a uni- versal history of plants, but described them less accurately than Csasalpinus. His brother Caspar tried to distinguish each species by a brief description of its characteristics, and grouped all species into genera ; and his sys- tem, with that of Cffisalpinus, was used by botanists for some years. War then put an end to botanical as to all other scientific progress in Europe ; and although Marcgraf explored and described the vegetable riches of Brazil, little advance was made until Leeuwenhoeck with the microscope (1632-1723) commenced the ex- amination of the hitherto invisible structure of vegetables, and thus gave a new impulse to bot- any, which resulted in investigations pursued with great accuracy by Nehemiah Grew (born about 1628), and by the Italian Marcello Mal- pighi (born in 1628). These two naturalists laid the foundation of vegetable physiology as a science by carefully examining all the cells and tissues of plants and seeds ; and, although in the great number of their discoveries they were both often misled, many of their investi- gations were of great importance. Several of the French academicians made further discov- eries : Charles Perrault on the movement of the sap ; Renaulme on the leaves as organs of tran- spiration, absorption, and nutrition ; Dodart on the direction of growth; Lahire on the growth of trees. Van Helmont and John Woodward made experiments on the nutrition of plants. In 1676 Thomas Millington and Bobart dis- covered the fertilizing power of anthers, which Grew confirmed, establishing the sexes of plants. In 1694 R. J. Camerarius demonstrated this discovery, and three years later Boccone experimented with palms, acting on the sug- gestion of Herodotus. All these doubtless led Linnaeus to his sexual classification. From the physiological botany which had at the time of Linn*us become so prominent, naturalists turned for a while to geographical botany, and many of the pupils of the great Swede were sent out as collectors. Solander explored Lap- land, Archangel, &c., and circumnavigated the globe with Cook and Banks ; Peter Kalm ex- plored North America; Peter Lofling, Por- tugal, Spain, and New Spain ; Hasselquist, Asia; Forskal, Arabia; Ternstrom, the East Indies; Osbeck, China; Solander, Surinam; others, various parts of Europe. Tournefort (1656-1708) travelled in southern Europe and western Asia ; L. Feuillee travelled in Asia in 1690 and in America in 1705 ; Charles Plmnier observed and collected plants in the Antilles, and A. Fr. Frezier in Spanish America. The Burmanns, father and son, described almost 1,500 new species from the East Indies, and Commelyn and his son described Malabar plants. Other distinguished botanical travellers are : Adanson, on the Senegal ; Thunberg, suc- cessor of Linnanis, at the Cape of Good Hope ; Kampfer, in Japan ; Ruiz and Pavon, in Chili and Peru ; Mutis, in equatorial America ; Jac- quin, in South America ; Swartz, in the Antil- les; Aublet, in Guiana; Joao Loureiro, in Cochin China ; Commerson, almost all over the globe ; Roxburgh, in Bengal ; Desfontaines, in Algeria ; Masson, at the Cape of Good Hope ;