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394 BUDDHISM of faith," or becomes a teacher, "unfurls the victorious banner of the good law," and proceeds to Varanasi, now Benares, on the Ganges ; there he finds his five former pupils, and though he preaches in the Magadhi lan- guage he is understood by all hearers of different tongues. Many other fanciful stories and many philosophic speculations have been interpolated amid the facts in the history of Buddha, espe- cially in the 45 years of his sacerdotal functions. The scene of his priestly life is placed by some in the Deccan, by others in Ceylon, and by others in the Punjaub, and even beyond the Indus ; although, as a matter of fact, it seems to have been- restricted within Oude and South and North Bahar, extending probably to the boundary of Bengal and into the Doab and Rohilcund. Many sculptures not far from modern Gaya, and other monuments at and near Patna, bear witness to the reality of the reformer's existence. When he appears to dis- charge his mission, men and women of all class- es and ages flock around him. Most of the rulers become converts together with their sub- jects. Sravasti (the city of hearing), on the northern bank of the Ganges, became a rival of Gaya. There Anathapindika built a mag- nificent monastery, from which most of the Buddhist holy books are dated. Here Sakya- muni appoints his pupils as apostles, and per- forms many miracles. At first he is adverse to the admission of women to ecclesiastical life, but afterward chooses some as his agents. He is also named Sramana (sram, to be wearied), or the unchangeable, and is soon opposed by Brahmans and others, especially for admitting the impure and outcast to the privileges of re- ligious asceticism. He humbles the six Tir- thakas, or sectarian philosophers and visitors of sacred ponds, whose lucrative occupation is ru- ined by the new doctrine. Calumny, conspira- cies, and snares, all tricks of Mara, are unavailing against him. 11. His native city, with all his kindred, is cruelly destroyed by a king of Kosa- la shortly before his death in the 80th year of his age. This causes great convulsions of nature. King Asoka raised on the spot where he died a stupa or mound with a column to his mem- ory. 12. When his body is about to be burnt, the pile cannot be kindled ; but after Kasyapa has honored the feet of the dead, the " flame of contemplation " breaks out of the breast and consumes the corpse. The pearly, heaven- scented pieces of his bones, which have defied the fire, almost cause a war for their possession, but are at last divided among seven competi- tors, who erect stupas over them. Even if an actual personal existence be denied to Sakya- muni, the religious reform itself must be admit- ted as a fact. Among the Buddhistic nations there is a difference of about 2,000 years as to the date of his death. As the skilfully con- trived story of 33 Buddhist patriarchs in un- interrupted succession is now exploded, we prefer the Cingalese date of 543 B. 0. Brah- manism had become intolerable. Sakyamuni rejects the Brahma, the authority of the Vedas, the sacrifices, and all Brahmanic rites. Even popular Buddhism in adopting the Brahmanic gods degrades them below Buddha, even below the Arhats (arh, to worship) or venerable priests, thus raising men above the gods. Bud- dha, a man, and not an incarnation of a higher being, is self-perfected. In the Vedas also holi- ness, piety, meditation, and wisdom are might- ier than all gods. Indian virtue, more passive than active, consists in self-sacrifice, in the tam- ing of sensuality and of one's own will, in sym- pathy with all beings. As soon as sin is uproot- ed, infinite knowledge opens. Originally, Bud- dhism was simple, ethical, and rational ; and hence hostile to mythology, scholasticism, cere- monies, and priestcraft. It was benevolent and humane in the highest degree. It improved upon the Sankhya philosophy, and rendered it popular and practical. It called all men to its fold, without any distinction of quality or posi- tion, opening to all the way of salvation, which it teaches to be attainable by purity of conduct. Castes, however, were not directly prohibited, but ignored, so that they exist to this day in Ceylon, the great southern stronghold of Bud- dhism. "I am a bhikshu" (beggar), says Sak- yamuni, without Brahmanic pride. " There is but one law for all: severe punishment for crime, and great reward for virtue." " My law is one of grace for all ; like heaven, affording room for men and women, for boys and girls, for rich and poor." " It is difficult to be rich and learn the way." In a legend all lamps kindled in honor of Buddha ceased burning, ex- cept one offered by a poor woman. Ananda, his favorite disciple, drinks water drawn from a well by a ChandSli. Sakyamuni spoke to the people in parables under the free sky ; united the scattered anchorets into communi- ties, orders, and monasteries, some for men, some for women, also allowing persons of both sexes to be lay members without vowing chasti- ty and mendicity. The clergy were made the foundation of Buddhistic society, whereas in other creeds the laity are the basis on which the hierarchy reposes. The first period of Buddhism, from Sakyamuni to its recognition as a sort of state religion in the great Prachina or Prasian empire and beyond Hindostan, com- prehends the fixation of the dogmas, its first schisms, and cecumenic councils. Kasyapa, the principal disciple of Sakyamuni, held the first council of 500 Arhats atRajagriha, establishing the Vinaya (et, before ; ni, to conduct) or dis- cipline based upon the Sutras (siv, to sew ; suf. tra) or apophthegms and sermons of Buddha. Disorders in the great monastery at Vaisali called for a second council in that city during the reign of the king Kalasoka, a great pro- tector of the faith, about 100 years after the death of Sakya. The history of Buddhism at that time is enveloped in the greatest dark- ness. Among about 18 sects two are promi- nent, viz., the Vaibhashika (M, apart, asunder ; bhdsh, to declare ; suf. ika), or dilemmists, with