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112 CATHARINE II. (OF RUSSIA) the provinces of the empire for discussing the reorganization of justice, was a new manifesta- tion of her political activity, as were the rules elaborated by her, and read in the first session, of her political wisdom. But the rude Samoyeds spoke of oppression by their governors, and a proposition for the enfranchisement of the serfs was soon made. Catharine was afraid of the consequences, and hastily dissolved the assem- bly, who declared her mother of the country. Greater were the results of her external diplo- macy. Poland, undermined by her intrigues and her protection bestowed on the dissidents, soon became a prey to its neighbors. The con- federation of Bar (1768), under the Pulaskis, Potocki, and other patriots, the weak opposition of France to Russia, and a declaration of war by the Turks, could not save that unhappy coun- try; and its first division by Russia, Austria, and Prussia ensued in 1772, and Catharine re- ceived a proportionate share. The Turks were humbled by her armies under RurniantzefF, on the Pruth and on the Kagul (1770), by the conquests of Khotim and Bender, as well as by her fleet under Alexis Orloff, which won the great naval victory of Scio, and burned the Turkish fleet in the bay of Tchesme ; and the last disasters compelled the Porte to ac- cept the peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji (1774), and to cede Kinburn, Azov, Yenikale, Kertch, and both Kabardas to Russia. The Crimea was made independent, soon to become a prey to Russia. Having happily subdued and severe- ly punished the revolt of the Cossack Puga- tcheff, a pseudo-Peter, in the eastern provinces (1771-'4), she now formed the plan of expel- ling the Turks from Europe, and founding a new Byzantine empire under a prince of her house. This scheme, favorably regarded by some phi- losophers of France, was eagerly promoted by her new favorite, the ambitious Potemkin, who ruled her no less arrogantly than he did the empire. One of the gates of Moscow received this inscription, " Way to Constantinople ;" one of her grandsons the name of Constantino ; and plans were made on the banks of the Neva for the restoration of Sparta and Athens. After a journey through the eastern provinces which had been the scene of the revolt, she undertook a new one, in 1787, through the southern parts of her empire, to the lately conquered Taurida (in part the ancient Tauris). Potemkin made this a most magnificent triumph. The eyes of the empress were (Jazzled by enchantments; palaces rose on desert prairies, to shine for a day ; villages and cities, of which only the walls were real, were seen from afar, covering the barren plains of the Tartar nomads ; masts and flags rising above the sands showed fictitious canals; festivities and bonfires followed each other ; and dances and songs, got up by official order, were supposed to show the happiness of a population of a hundred nationalities. Catha- rine, who delighted in the applause of the French philosophers, amused herself and her court at the same time with translating Mar- montel's Beliwire, but still pursued her dip- lomatic schemes. Poniatowski, who came to see her after 23 years, near the frontiers of his dismembered state, was repaid with kind prom- ises for ancient personal affection and new po- litical fidelity. Joseph II. of Austria, who came to Kherson, was won for a common war against Turkey, which ended for Austria with his death (1790), and without gain, and for Russia, after the conquest of Otchakov by Potemkin, after the great victories of Suvaroff, and his bloody conquests of Ismail and Bender, with the peace of Jassy (1792), and the acquisition of Otchakov and the country between the Bog and Dniester. This result, so slight in comparison with the expected overthrow of the Turkish empire, was owing in part to a war with Gustavus III. of Sweden, who marched against St. Petersburg, but was happily checked in Finland by his officers refusing to advance, and was thus com- pelled to make peace (1790); in part to the op- position of England and Prussia ; but princi- pally to the bravery of the Turks in defence of their country. The progress and victories of the French revolution, though giving her a kind of satisfaction by the humiliation of several states once mighty, filled Catharine with horror, and made her soon forget all her predilections for France, and her own vaunted liberalism ; she assisted the emigres, broke off every communication with the French govern- ment, and even made an alliance with England. Poland was in the mean time the chief object of her attention. Catharine, while at war with Turkey, had approved of its new constitution of May 8, 1791, which promised to give union and vigor to the nation, as did also Frederick William II. of Prussia, who was at war with France. But scarcely were these wars ended when Poland was treacherously attacked from both sides. A Russian army of 100,000 men was sent to support the aristocratic faction that had formed the confederation of Targovitza against the constitution. The nephew of the king, the future French marshal, Joseph Ponia- towski, in vain led the Polish army against them ; Kosciuszko proved in vain to be a worthy disciple of Washington. The king, per- suaded by Catharine, deserted them, and went over to the confederation, and the second par- tition of Poland followed, executed by Russia and Prussia alone. The Russian cannon com- pelled the diet of Grodno to sanction it (1798). The great rising of the betrayed nation in the following year commenced with the massacre of the Russians, and with glorious victories un- der Kosciuszko as dictator, but ended with his defeat at Maciejowice (Oct. 10, 1794), and with the taking of Praga (Nov. 3) by SuvarofF, who repeated there the slaughter of Ismail and Bender. " Bravo, field marshal ! " was Catha- rine's answer to his report, " Hurrah, Praga Suvaroff." The three great neighbors of Po- land now took the whole of it, and destroyed even its name (1795). A year before Catha- rine had annexed Courland to Russia. She