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CHMIELNICKI CHOATE 505 red globules to the other constituents of the blood in health is somewhat less in the for- mer than in the latter ; and besides there are several causes of anaemia peculiar to women, namely, child-bearing, lactation, and excessive menstruation. It is an effect of the loss of blood or haemorrhage in any situation, the ex- planation being that the red globules which are lost are not quickly renewed, their repro- duction requiring more or less time. A de- ficiency of alimentary supplies, inability of the stomach to retain food, and defective assimila- tion give rise to the anaemic condition ; also profuse suppuration, or the formation of morbid products involving an undue expenditure of the blood constituents. Thus, anaemia is inci- dent to such diseases as chronic pleurisy, al- buminuria or Bright's disease, chronic dysen- tery, &c., which impoverish the blood. Again, certain diseases occasion anaemia by interfering with the production of red globules in modes not fully explicable with our present knowledge. Examples are the so-called malarial affections, lead poisoning, diphtheria, cirrhosis of the liver, &c. The effect of anaemia is to impair the functional ability of all the important or- gans of the body in other words, to diminish vital power throughout the system. In the practice of medicine, it is very necessary to take cognizance of the anaemic condition as a pathological element which may either en- ter into, or be incidentally connected with, a great variety of diseases. The phenomena of anaemia are especially manifested in disor- ders of the nervous system. Many of the af- fections of the nervous system which are dis- tinguished as functional, belonging among the affections called the neuroses, are in a great measure caused and kept up by the anaemic condition; and the treatment of these affec- tions, to be successful, must proceed from an appreciation of this connection. With refer- ence to the treatment in cases of anaemia, it is of course of primary importance to determine its causes, and if possible to remove them. This is not practicable when the anaemia is incidental to such diseases as consumption, cancer, &c. ; but it can be done when the anaamic condition de- pends on lactation, insufficient alimentation, and certain affections, as for example those due to malaria, which are under the control of medical art. Under all circumstances anaemia offers certain indications for remedies and other measures of treatment which relate directly to the impoverished state of the blood. These have been already stated in connection with chlorosis. If the condition has been produced by causes which are either temporary or remov- able, the success of treatment strikingly exem- plifies the improvement in medical practice derived from the recently acquired knowledge of this morbid condition. CHMIELNICKI, Bogdan, chief of the revolted Cossacks, under the reigns of Ladislas IV. and John Casimir of Poland, born in 1593, died Aug. 25, 1657. He was the son of a Polish no- bleman, who settled among the Cossacks of the Ukraine. This people, who had long defended the eastern boundaries of Poland against the Tartars and Russians, were at that time sub- jected to grievous oppression. Their religion was persecuted, their freedom circumscribed ; the castle of Kudak, called the curb of the Cos- sacks, was built to restrain them. Thus exas- perated, they seized Kudak and massacred the garrison, but were soon subdued. After their defeat, Bogdan was sent to the court of Ladis- las, where he was favorably received and ap- pointed secretary of the Zaporogian Cossacks. But envy, suspicion, and hatred soon drove him forth, and finally made him a scourge of Poland. The intrigues of Czaplicki, an official at Czehryn, deprived him of an inherited estate, and of his wife, who deserted him and her religion, and caused his son Timofey to be publicly whipped. Having in vain sought for redress at Warsaw, he entered into a conspiracy with the Cossacks against the Poles, and sought the alliance of the khan of the Tartars, who ordered 80,000 of his people to assist him. He now revolted, and commanded the massacre of all the Poles, Catholic priests, and Jews. The son of the hetman Potocki, who was sent against him, was deserted and fell in the battle at the Yel- low Waters, and the hetman himself was made prisoner in that of Korsun (1648). Three other commanders were ignominiously defeat- ed at Pilawce. Chmielnicki was master of the Ukraine, and carried terror, devastation, and death as far as Lemberg and Zamosc, but stop- ped there, awaiting the result of the election of a king, held at Warsaw. Under the new king, John Casimir, the war was continued with equal cruelty on both sides. Victories and defeats followed by turns, conditions of peace were offered and rejected, treaties concluded and violated, provinces desolated, fiendish atro- cities committed ; the serfs even of the Polish districts rose for freedom and rapine. Chmiel- nicki put himself under the protection of Tur- key, of Eussia (1654), and again under that of Poland (1656). A long war between Kussia and Poland broke out after his death, which ended in 1667 with the cession of Kiev, Smo- lensk, and the Ukraine to the czar. CHOATE, Bnfns, an American lawyer, born at Essex, Mass., Oct. 1, 1799, died in Halifax, Nova Scotia, July 13, 1859. He graduated at Dartmouth college in 1819, was tutor there for a year, then studied law, and in 1824 commenced practice at Danvers, Mass., but soon afterward removed to Salem. In 1825 he was elected representative in the Massachusetts legisla- ture, in 1827 state senator, and in 1832 a rep- resentative in congress. He declined a reelec- tion, and taking up his residence in Boston en- tered upon the practice of his profession, in which he soon rose to the highest rank, being recognized as one of the most acute lawyers and the ablest advocate of the Massachusetts bar. In 1841 he was elected United States senator to fill the unexpired term of Daniel