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COMMON SCHOOLS 159 Johnson, through the press, to elevate the standard of instruction and to create institu- tions for the professional training of teachers ; the establishment of the "American Journal of Education" in January, 1826, afterward called the "American Annals of Education;" the improvement of text books ; conventions, town, county, and state, held throughout New England from 1826 to 1830 in behalf of com- mon schools; the subsequent organization of teachers' institutes and associations ; the found- ing of normal schools; the zealous and un- wearied efforts of Horace Mann, Henry Bar- nard, and others ; the plan of lecturing in every precinct in the states on the subject of educa- tion ; and the establishment of local school pe- riodicals, as well as of those of a more general character. In the United States the organiza- tion and control of the common schools are left to the respective states; hence there is no uniform common school system, but a wide diversity of plans is presented. The variances, however, relate chiefly to details, while the following leading features may be regarded as common: 1. A system of graded schools for each town, embracing (a) primary schools for the younger pupils ; (&) grammar schools for the older, in which are taught, in addition to the or- dinary branches, natural philosophy, chemistry, history, and frequently drawing, vocal music, algebra, geometry, French, and German ; (c) high schools for the more advanced, in which are taught the studies necessary for a business education, and in most cases the languages and higher mathematics. 2. The placing these un- der the constant supervision of one or more efficient visitors, who ascertain by thorough examination the qualifications of the teachers. 3. The enforcement of uniformity of text books, and regularity and punctuality of attendance. 4. Regular and frequent public examinations. 5. The establishment of school libraries in con- nection with all the schools. 6. The introduc- tion of blackboards, globes, orreries, maps, charts, outline maps, and other apparatus for instruction. 7. The proper construction of school houses, for ventilation, warming, con- venience of instruction, and promotion of order. 8. The establishment of normal schools for the instruction of teachers, and the holding of teachers' institutes for exercise and drill of those already engaged in instruction. 9. The organization of state teachers' associations for comparison of methods of teaching, and the establishment of state periodicals devoted to schools. 10. The extension of the privileges of these schools to all the children of school age in each state, either by supporting the schools entirely by taxation and the income of funds where they exist, or by taxation and small rate bills, which are abated where there is inability to pay, and the furnishing the ne- cessary text books to the children of the poor. The study of drawing, music, and German as regular branches in the common school has re- cently been widely extended. The introduc- 216 VOL. v. 11 tion of evening schools into the common school system is of recent origin ; but there has been a marked development hi this department of public instruction. These schools are intended for those whose employment prevents them from attending the day schools, and are found chiefly in cities and the larger manufacturing towns. Some of the states have the advantage of considerable funds to aid in the support of their schools. The western states generally will be largely endowed, as the 16th section of every township is granted for school purposes by the national government, and other lands also are granted by the states. The land grant- ed by the United States for school purposes amounts to about 68,000,000 acres, which has been estimated to be worth more than $60,- 000,000. In most of the states the schools are under the supervision of a board of education or a state superintendent, generally elected by the people, but in a few instances receiving their appointments from the governor or legis- lature. In some of the states the system also comprises county superintendents. In several of the states laws have been passed making at- tendance at public or private schools compul- sory for a specified period, varying from 16 months between the ages of 5 and 18 years, to 4 months each year ; while in other states those districts in which schools are not open for a specified period are not entitled to any portion of the school fund. Provision for compulsory attendance at school has been made in the con- stitutions of Arkansas, Missouri, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia, and in other states laws are in force compelling parents to send their children to school. In Kansas, Nevada, Arkansas, Nebraska, Ohio, and South Carolina sectarian instruction and control are forbidden by the constitution. Prior to the civil war the southern states had no well organized school system ; but in the adop- tion of new state constitutions after the war provision was generally made for the establish- ment of free common schools. Much progress has been made toward carrying into effect these provisions and perfecting the free school sys- tem. The common school funds in the various states generally consist of such grants of land as have been made by the general government for school purposes, and the investment of funds arising from sales of the same, together with those accruing from state and individual endowments, and the proceeds from taxation, including poll and property taxes. In 1867 a law was passed by congress establishing a bureau of education for the purpose of col- lecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of school systems and meth- ods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and main- tenance of efficient school systems, and other- wise promote the cause of education through-