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CONSTANTINE I. CONSTANTINE II. 271 bune. When in 305 Diocletian and -Maximian retired into private life, Constantine, who had everything to fear from the jealousy of the neAv eastern emperor Galerius, took refuge with his father, who had succeeded Maximian as emperor of the West. He followed him to England, where Constantius died in 306. The army immediately proclaimed Constantine em- peror, but Galerius disapproved of the choice, and, recognizing Constantine as lieutenant em- peror, appointed Severus emperor of the West. While Constantine protected Gaul and the Rhenish frontier against the invasions of the Germans, violent struggles arose at Rome be- tween Severus and Maximian's son Maxentius, who had been elected emperor by the people and army. Maximian himself, having become tired of private life, once more laid claim to the imperial purple. He had Severus assassi- nated, but was overcome by his own son and compelled to seek refuge with his son-in-law Constantine, whose aid he endeavored to ob- tain by promising him the succession. Con- stantine, while preparing to comply with Max- imian's request, became aware that he himself was secretly conspired against by his treacher- ous ally, whom he now in 310 compelled to com- mit suicide. Maxentius, in order to avenge his father's death, was about to set out for Gaul, when suddenly Constantine led his legions to Italy, and triumphantly entered Rome. There he was greeted as emperor by the senate, Max- entius having been accidentally drowned. Du- ring this campaign Constantine is said to have seen in the sky a flaming cross, bearing the inscription: 'Ev TOVTQ vina, "In this conquer." From that time the symbol of Christianity ap- peared on the shields of the soldiers and the banners of the Roman army. In the mean time Galerius, who still assumed supreme authority, had appointed Licinius emperor of the West, but Constantine made common cause with him. Galerius died in 311 ; his successor Maximin was defeated by Licinius, and thus in 313 the empire was once more divided between two ru- lers, Constantine for the West and Licinius for the East. The next year Constantine attempt- ed to overthrow Licinius, but could only wrest from him Illyricum, Pannonia, and Greece. A peace of nine years followed, during which Con- stantine consolidated his power by reforms in the civil, military, and judicial administration. At last, in 323, he was ready to realize his de- sire to reunite the whole empire. He took the field against Licinius, defeated him in two bat- tles at Adrianople and Chalcedon, compelled him to surrender, and, in spite of a solemn promise to spare his life, condemned him to an ignominious death. It is in vain that zealous writers have tried to relieve Constantino's rep- utation from the crimes committed to satisfy his ambition. His father-in-law, his brother- in-law Licinius, his own son Crispus, his nephew the son of Licinius, a boy of 11 years, and lastly his wife Fausta, were successively his victims. As a statesman and politician, Constantine 223 VOL. v. 18 favored and protected Christianity, though he was baptized only on his deathbed. He con- ceived that the vast structure of a centralized empire, comprising almost the whole civilized world, was not to be built upon the decaying remnants of paganism. A new and vigorous principle, which, by inculcating obedience to existing authorities, seemed admirably adapted to the wants of absolute monarohism, was to instil new life into the Roman empire. This may have been Constantino's idea. As early as 312 he granted absolute toleration to the Christians, and restored to them the property confiscated by his predecessors, and every at- tempt to restrain the religious liberty of Chris- tians was severely punished. By convening and attending the general council at Nice (325), Constantine openly declared the Christian to be the official religion of the empire. The re- moval of the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium (330) was another great measure by which he intended to strengthen the empire. New Rome was to be the name of the new capital, but the name of Constantinople (the city of Constantine) prevailed. All vestiges of republican forms were extinguished by him; Coin of Constantine. while in the administration of affairs he brought order out of chaos, and constructed a powerful machinery of government by separating the civil from the military administration, but uni- ting both in the hands of the sovereign. He made his court outshine in splendor and mag- nificence even those of the oriental princes, and created a hierarchy of officials which to this day has remained the model of European monarchical courts. A standing army of 300,- 000 men and 29 naval squadrons supported the imperial authority. Heavy impositions upon the people were necessary to cover the enor- mous expenses, but the introduction of a regu- lar financial system, and a just distribution of the taxes, made them appear less onerous than they would otherwise have been. With the exception of a brief war in 332 against the Goths, occupying the present Danubian prin- cipalities, the reign of Constantine after the reunion of the empire was a peaceful one. He was preparing for war against Persia when he suddenly fell ill, and died on the day of Pente- cost, after having been baptized by the bishop of Nicomedia. He was buried in the church of the apostles at Constantinople. CONSTANTINE II., emperor of Rome, eldest son of Constantine the Great by his second