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188 DOLLINGER universities of Wiirzburg, Vienna, and Pavia, and in 1794 was appointed professor of medi- cine at Bamberg; but the university having been dissolved, he became professor at Wiirz- Imrir, and in 1823 at Landshut, removing with that university in 1826 to Munich, where he remained until his death. His position in the history of science is mainly due to his re- searches in comparative anatomy and .physi- ology. His principal works are: Naturlehre des menschlichen Organismm (1805), Grund- zuge der Physiologic (1835), Entwiclcelungsge- KC'II'K- lite des Gehirns (ISll), and Grundzugeder Entwiclcelung des Zell-, Knochen- und Blutsys- tems (1842). He invented an improvement of the microscope. II. Johann Joseph Ignaz, a Ger- man theologian, son of the preceding, born in Bamberg, Feb. 28, 1799. He was ordained priest in 1822, and became chaplain of Markt- scheinfeld in the diocese of Bamberg. His lit- erary productions obtained for him at the age of 24 a chair of church history and polity at the lyceum of A schaffenburg. Three years later he was appointed professor at the university of Munich. He became one of the most influen- tial men in the ecclesiastical affairs of Bavaria, and was soon identified with the policy of Abel's ministry. His literary labors during this period were chiefly directed to the claims of Protestantism, and he accumulated in his works everything unfavorable to it. He wrote Kirchengeschichte von der Zeit der Reforma- tion ~bis zur neuern Zeit, in continuation of Hortig's Handbuch der chrutlichen Kirchen- geschichte, of which he prepared a new edi- tion (Ratisbon, 1833), and commenced a Hand- buck der Kirchengeschichte on a very extensive plan, but completed only two volumes. His Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (1836-'8) is also incomplete, as it leaps over the whole internal history of the middle ages, and is brought to a close at the time of the reformation. He undertook a third work, ChristenthiLm und Kirche zur Zeit ihrer Grundlegung, for which he wrote a prolegomena entitled Heidenthum und Judenthum (1857), and of which the first volume appeared in 1860. In these works he sharply criticised every opposition to papal authority and received creeds; but he was equally sharp in his moral criticisms of the popes. With the fall of Abel's ministry in 1847 he lost his professorship, but he still remain- ed provost of the collegiate church of St. Ca- jetan in Munich. In the following year he was elected to the parliament at Frankfort, where he ivjuvsented in all respects the interests of the Catholic hierarchy. He was reinstated in his chair in 1849, but failed to regain his former in- flnence in government circles. His observation " of the movements of the ultramontanists weak- ened his confidence in his party, and in 1861 he gave a series of popular lectures on the pros- pects of the continuance of the secular power of the pope, which were appended to his Kirche und Kirchen, Papsthum und Kirchen- ttaat (Munich, 1861). This work roused the suspicions of the ultramontanists; it gives a synopsis and critique of the Protestant beliefs and sects, in a spirit of great moderation, and declares that Luther was the greatest man of his time. Dollinger called for a congress of learned men to discuss the subject of science and faith, the incompatibility of which had been declared in a recent work of Frohscham- mer. The meeting was held in September, 1863, and at its close he sent a telegram to the pope, saying, " On the question of the re- lation of science to ecclesiastical authority, the meeting has decided that the former should be subject to the latter." His Papstfdbeln des Mittelalters (1863) awakened new suspicions; but in 1864 he joined several professors of the- ology in Munich in a public declaration of their firm orthodoxy, and of their opposition to Frohschammer and his tendency. But the Jesuits were not satisfied, and continued their attacks upon him in the Cimltd Cattolica. The result was that he became more estranged from the episcopacy, and sought his friends among the members of the ministry, who readily lent him their aid in thwarting some of the plans of his enemies. After the papal syllabus of 1864, the Jesuits began to discuss the necessity of having the infallibility of the pope formally announced as a doctrine of the church. Dol- linger opposed this proposition, and published in the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung a seri( of anonymous articles, which appeared in separate form under the title of Papst unc Condi, by Janus (1869). This work was trans lated into English, French, and Italian, and passed rapidly through several editions; but Dollinger has only indirectly acknowledged himself the author of it. Its object is to show by means of authenticated documents that the papal power was based on fictions and frauds and on great ignorance of historical facts ; but it does not relinquish the doctrines of the primacy of the pope and of the infallibility of the church. Dollinger was appointed in 1868 councillor of state for life, and as such he voted against the liberal bill for education. When the doctrine of infallibility was adopted by the council of the Vatican, July, 1870, Dol- linger was asked by the archbishop to explain his previous attitude, and to announce his will- ingness to submit to the decision of the coun- cil. He refused to do so, and offered to state his reasons and prove their validity before an ecclesiastical assembly. The organs of the liberal party praised his action, and nearly all the Catholic professors at the university of Mu- nich signed an address of congratulation and sympathy. From the opposition thus excited sprang up the so-called " Old Catholic " move- ment in Bavaria, that designation (which had been assumed about ten years before by an organization in Baden) being adopted by 12,000 signers of a petition to the king against the teaching of the doctrine. Dollinger re- ceived also congratulatory addresses from sev- eral cities in Germany and Austria, and his