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EDUCATION 429 moral philosophy. There are 21 faculties of giurisprudenza, with an average of 15 full pro- fessors, and in some cases honorary and ex- traordinary professors. There are also special courses in many of the faculties. At the con- clusion of the first three years of study the degree of bachelor in law is conferred ; at the end of the fourth year, the degree of licentiate ; and at the end of the fifth, the diploma of doc- tor. In France there are 11 faculties of law, with 98 chairs. As in Italy, legal instruction is under control of the state, and the degrees and the general regulations governing admis- sion are the same in both countries. No per- son in France is admitted to the courses pre- scribed for any degree unless a graduate in the arts. No one can practise as a barrister (avocat) without the degree of licentiate of law, or as a solicitor (avoue) without the certi- ficat de capacite en droit. To obtain the de- gree of bachelor, which entitles the holder merely to practise as a solicitor, the candidate must complete the courses of the first two years and undergo examinations in the Insti- tutes of Justinian and the Code Napoleon, the penal code, and the codes of civil procedure and of criminal instruction. The degree of licentiate is conferred only upon those who have received the degree of bachelor, have completed the third year's course of study in a faculty of law, and have passed examinations in the Code Napoleon and the codes of com- merce and of administrative law, besides de- fending a thesis on questions of Koman and French law. To obtain the degree of doctor in law it is necessary to be a licentiate, to com- plete the four years' course of study, and to pass two examinations on Koman, French, and international law. For those who design to practise in a subordinate capacity, as mere solicitors, notaries public, &c., a certiftcat de capacite en droit is granted at the end of one year's study, embracing the first and second years' courses in the Code Napoleon and the codes of civil and criminal procedure. In the German empire law is taught in the univer- sities, which have 30 faculties of law and about 300 professors. The degree of doctor is the only one conferred ; the term of study is four years. The Maturitatszeugniss (corre- sponding to the American A. B.) granted by the gymnasia is requisite for admission. In the Scandinavian states the law schools are not numerous or provided with large corps of in- structors. The gradation of studies and the degrees conferred resemble those of the French and Italian, rather than the German schools. Instruction is given by lectures, and examina- tions are frequent. The Anglo-Saxon schools of law, both in Great Britain and the United States, are regarded as vastly inferior to those of the continent. There are law departments in most of the British universities, which con- fer degrees only upon those who have a gen- eral knowledge of language, literature, and philosophy. In the United States law schools are generally departments of colleges or uni- versities. The professors number from one to five, and are often judges of the court or prac- tising lawyers. The course of study is usually two years, on the completion of which the de- gree of bachelor (LL. B.) is conferred almost as a matter of course, the final examination in many cases being merely nominal, or not re- quired at all. Usually no educational or pro- fessional requirements for admission exist. In some instances this degree entitles the holder to practise in all the courts of the state ; and even without the diploma of any law school, a person may be admitted to the bar upon ex- amination, which is frequently very limited, in certain legal studies. In Europe the system of ecclesiastical education comprises the two gen- eral divisions Protestant and Catholic, while in the United States there are almost as many kinds of theological schools as there are sects. The continental faculties of theology represent the one or the other of those two branches of the Christian church. In Italy, Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal, they are Catholic ; in the North German states, in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Scandi- navia, they are Protestant; while in France they are divided. In the United States, where there is no connection between church and state, each denomination guards its own theo- logical interests by the establishment of such schools as may be required. Accordingly the 108 theological schools, with 435 professors and 3,351 students in 1872, were distributed among 19 sects. The multiplication of sec- tarian theological schools is also a feature of ecclesiastical education in Great Britain, but not so extended as in the United States. This department of education in France is provided for by 7 faculties with 42 professdrs ; Italy, 8 faculties and 64 professors; Prussia, 12 facul- ties and 112 professors; Austria, 4 faculties and 38 professors; the Netherlands, 3 facul- ties and 14 professors ; Denmark and Norway, each 1 faculty and 5 professors; Sweden, 2 faculties and 8 professors ; and Great Britain, 8 faculties and 34 professors. In regard to the subjects taught and the qualifications for ad- mission, there seems to be a nearer accordance among the different nations than in either medicine or law. In Europe the degree of A. B. or the certificate of maturity from the gymnasium is necessary to admission ; in the United States the qualifications for admission in some cases are nearly the same, though in most of the theological seminaries little more than a common school education is really re- quired. In France five professorships are re- garded as essential (there are sometimes seven), and the term of study is three years ; the Italian schools have eight full professors and a course of five years. In Germany the term of study is shorter, being four years in Austria and three in Prussia and most of the other states. The number of full professors is often 10 or 12, besides numerous extraordinary pro-