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618 ENGLAND since 1714, the Salic law prevailing in Han- over. The queen was very popular when she ascended the throne. She favored the whig ministry, which remained in office four years after her accession, though often rudely shaken, and once compelled to resign for a few days. There was a near approach to war with France in 1840, in consequence of disputes on the eastern question. In 1841 the long contest be- tween the conservatives and the whigs came to a crisis, and after the latter had been more than once defeated, the house of commons de- clared its want of confidence in them by a vote of 312 to 311. Shortly afterward parliament was dissolved, and the subsequent elections ended in a conservative triumph. When par- liament met, the ministers were beaten by 91 majority in the commons, and by 72 in the lords. They immediately resigned, and Peel formed a conservative ministry. The whigs, just before they had been expelled, had adopt- ed the part of corn-law reformers, and the voice of the country was beginning to make it- self heard on this question of food. In many respects Peel showed himself a reformer. He freed many articles from duties, and in other ways approximated to the position of a free trader. The more intense conservatives were dissatisfied, but the course of events was too much for them. The famine of 1845 com- pelled the ministry to discontinue their sup- port of the protection policy, and the anti- corn-law league received much aid from the potato rot. The minister resigned, but was compelled to resume office, and to preside over the destruction of the corn laws, which were finally disposed of, June 26, 1846. The Peel ministry had from the first experienced much difficulty in the management of Irish affairs. The Melbourne ministry had pursued a liberal course toward Ireland, and received the support of Daniel O'Connell and his friends; but when the conservatives came into office, the Irish leader, between whom and the premier the utmost personal dislike existed, resumed the work of " agitation." He brought forward the repeal question, and meet- ings were held in various parts of Ireland, at which enormous numbers were present. Gov- ernment interfered to prevent one of these meetings at Clontarf, Oct. 8, 1843. O'Connell, one of his sons, and eight other persons were arrested on charges of conspiracy, sedition, and unlawful assembling. They were tried and convicted, and O'Connell was sentenced to a heavy fine and a year's imprisonment, and re- quired to find high recognizances to keep the peace for seven years. The case was carried before the house of lords, where the judgment of the lower court was reversed (Sept. 4, 1844). Though nominally beaten, government was really victorious, as from that time O'Connell's influence was essentially diminished. In 1846 the Peel ministry brought forward an act to protect life in Ireland, but it was defeated in the commons on the same day that the corn laws were repealed, and the ministry came to an end, being succeeded by one at the head of which was Lord John Russell, and which ruled England through the European crisis of 1848-'9. A weak attempt to get up an insurrection in Ire- land was put down, and the chiefs in it were transported. The Russell ministry went out of office in 1852, and for several months the tories, led by Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, were at the head of affairs. This ministry was followed by one composed of coalesced whigs and Peel- ites, headed by Lord Aberdeen. In 1853 the troubles on the Turkish question began, and war was declared against Russia by France and England in March, 1854. Large fleets and armies were sent to the East, and fleets to the Baltic. The Crimea was invaded, the victory of the Alma won by the allies, and Sebastopol partially invested. The Russians brought up large forces, lost the battles of Balaklava and Inkerman, but were more suc- cessful in defending Sebastopol. Winter set in, and great sufferings were experienced by the besiegers. Alarming accounts of the sani- tary condition of the army reached London, and although the allies had destroyed Bo- marsund in the Aland islands, their expedi- tion to the Baltic had failed. Much irritation existed in England, under the effect of which the Aberdeen ministry broke down, and was succeeded by one at the head of which was Lord Palmerston. The war was continued in the Crimea during the winter, but little prog- ress was made in the siege. In the spring some brilliant successes were achieved ; but on June 18 both French and English were repulsed in attempting to storm the Malakhoff and the Redan. Lord Raglan, the English commander, died soon after, and was succeeded by Gen. Simpson. On Sept. 8 the French stormed the Malakhoff, while the English failed before the Redan. The Russians immediately abandoned Sebastopol, and the war w r as now virtually at an end. Peace was restored by a congress of the great powers at Paris, in March, 1856; but England signed it reluctantly. It was as well for her that peace was restored, for not much more than a year after, and while engaged in hostilities with Persia and China, a conspiracy was formed in her great Bengal army of sepoys, which broke out in January, 1857. Delhi fell into the hands of the sepoys, and the nominal Mogul emperor found himself once more a sov- ereign in reality. The mutiny spread rapidly, and in a short time the whole Bengal army had become hostile to the English. The contest that followed led to the complete reestablish- ment of the English ascendancy. The military reputation of England was greatly raised by the successes of her armies in India, achieved under the lead of Sir Henry Havelock, Sir Colin Campbell, and others. In eight months after the breaking out of the mutiny there were nearly 70,000 effective English troops there, and new native corps had replaced the sepoys. By the end of 1858 this formidable revolt was totally