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LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 193 of the prevailing official style. The Second Period. This comprises within two centuries and a half the entire literature of the republic, which, though very mediocre in the beginning, ends with a considerable development of poetry and prose. Greek works were then the raw material of learning and literature, and served as a foundation for the independent thoughts of the Roman people. In the archaic division of this period, the main efforts were concen- trated on political labors, and the beginnings of literary grace were made. Livius Androni- cus was the first who transplanted Greek lit- erature to Rome, by causing the representa- tion of a drama, and translating the Odyssey, which formed the first school book of the Lat- in youth. His productions exhibit neither ease nor beauty; but his successor Nsevius, about 235, attained greater fluency and a more mas- culine rhythm, and deserves to be classed as a genuine poet. The events of the second Pu- nic war created a desire for historical writings, which the contemporary Fabius Pictor and Cincius Alimentus attempted to satisfy, but without exercising any critical judgment on the Greek sources from which they borrowed their material, and writing chiefly in Greek. The decrees of the senate, as the Senatus Con- sultum de Bacchanalibus, dating from 186, af- ford a better opportunity for estimating the progress which so far had been made in Latin style. The sentences are loose, the orthogra- phy archaic, and the general form not very smooth. The best representative of the culture of this time undoubtedly was the elder Cato, a master of Latin prose in the beginning of the 2d century B. 0. He was the first who wrote his mother tongue with fluency, remoulded the archaisms, and cast over them the fresh- ness of his own spirit. His Origines, a work of seven books, giving the ethnography and history of ancient Italy, and replete with all manner of researches, incidents of war, and memoirs, was a valuable legacy to his country- men. His opposition to Greek culture, though he himself possessed most varied learning, exercised a salutary influence on the growth of an independent literature. Epicurean philoso- phers were expelled, Greek rhetoric condemn- ed, and permanent theatres forbidden. Only the grammatical discourses of Crates, the Per- ganiene ambassador, were listened to without prejudice. But the wealthy class soon turned again to Greek culture and to foreign litera- tures as an aristocratic adornment. With the extension of the Roman power came an influx of the treasures of Greece, Macedonia, Asia, and Libya, making the Romans depreciate the meagre products of their own civilization, but not without creating a desire for similar cul- ture. In Cato's time appeared the father of Latin poetry, Quintus Ennius, who died in 169. He was a man of wonderful versatility, and his genius was exceedingly productive; but the chief value of his poetry was, that he abandoned the Saturnian metre, and introduced the rhythms developed by the Greeks. In his adaptation of the Latin language to the Greek style he was naturally guilty of stretching words to uses not always admissible, but even this error was of profit to the Romans, as it showed them the great flexibility of their tongue. Caecilius Statius (died in 168) and Maccius Plautus profited by his lessons; but not being brought up like Ennius in the circles of Roman aristocracy, they introduced into their imitations of Grecian comedies the lan- guage, thoughts, and manners of the plebeians ; their comedies, consequently, were more plea- sant to look at when performed than to read. Pacuvius also was a successor of Ennius. His tragedies were more than mere translations from the Greek, and though he was no inno- vator in the poetic art, he was quite free and original in the treatment of foreign materials. In 166 was represented the first drama of Te- rence, whose imitations of Menander were rath- er exact and measured. His dialogues manifest- ed good taste, and his language was perfectly exemplary and very spirited. Novius and Pom- ponius, writers of a later generation, were more popular poets, as they understood how imper- ceptibly to turn the gravity of the Romans to purposes of wit and humor. Lselius, Sulpicius Gallus, and ^Elius Tubero were probably the best educated among the cultivated classes of this time; and Lucilius, their friend (about 120), created with delicate literary invention a new form of popular poetry, which deservedly grew into general favor. He was well versed in the secrets and failings of Roman society, and he used his poetic art to freely criticise them, and the ways of native law and science. While his satires had a beneficial effect upon the customs and learning of the age, it was At- tius (or Accius) whose elevated pathos endowed Roman tragedy with the true fervor of poetry. He brought upon the stage the brilliant figures of the history of his country, and inspired his rctators not only with patriotic feelings, but ) with a better appreciation of the poetic art. It is noticeable that so far there was neither epic nor lyric poetry. The increased moral degradation, the unequally divided prop- erty, which constantly threw the senate and the people into violent discussions, and the legal processes of enormous magnitude, called the best talents to the practice of law and the efforts of eloquence. The principles of phi- losophy had to serve them as handmaids. But philosophy had come to a halt even among the Greeks, and consequently was but little culti- vated by the Romans. There were Epicureans and Stoics, and the latter exercised great influ- ence on Roman jurisprudence. Empiricists of high standing were Mucius Scsevola (about 95), the creator of the jus pontificium, and Manilius and Junius Brutus (about 134), practitioners of law. Yet public eloquence was at this time the most potent lever of literary efforts. Sul- picius Galba (149) was eminently successful, even in bad cases, through insinuating arti-