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LOUIS PHILIPPE 681 England, where he was joined by his sister Adelaide. Shortly after they had the satisfac- tion of being reunited at Palermo with their venerable mother, who had been living first at Barcelona, and afterward at Figueras, since 1797. Louis Philippe's marriage with Marie Am61ie took place in the royal chapel at Paler- mo, Nov. 25, 1809. In the spring of 1810 he again endeavored to go to Spain; but, once more thwarted by English diplomacy, he re- turned to Palermo, where his first child (after- ward duke of Orleans) had been born during his absence (Sept. 3, 1810). His reconcilia- tion with the. elder branch of the Bourbon family having been effected in 1799, very much through their common hatred of Napoleon, the fall of the emperor permitted Louis Philippe to return to France in the spring of 1814, after an exile of 21 years. His rank in the army, the estates of his father and his own, were all restored to him, while the considera- ble property of the duke of Penthievre was restored to his mother. On Napoleon's re- turn from Elba, Louis Philippe, after an at- tempt at cooperation with the count of Artois, retired to England. After the battle of Water- loo he returned to Paris, and remained there till Oct. 13, 1815, when, having incurred the displeasure of the court by his opposition to its reactionary policy, he again retired to Twicken- ham. In February, 1817, he obtained permis- sion from Louis XVIII. to return to France, but the title of royal highness was not accorded to him until the accession of Charles X. in 1824. With the latter he was personally on friend- ly terms, but vainly urged him to liberalize his policy. Louis Philippe looked upon the support of the middle classes or bourgeoisie as the only substantial guaranty for safety between the extremes of republicanism and absolutism. At the same time his generous hospitality to politicians, men of letters, and artists contrasted favorably with the rigid exclusiveness of the court of Charles X. The charms of his conversation fascinated all who came in contact with him, and he won public favor by the amenity of his manners and by the virtues of his domestic life. During the revolution of July, 1830, his name occurred to Laifitte, Be>anger, and other leaders of the movement, as the only one which could rally the nation in support of constitutional mon- archy ; and after some hesitation Louis Philippe accepted the title of lieutenant general of the kingdom, his public reception at the hotel de ville taking place on July 31, where together with Lafayette he appeared at the window with a tricolor flag, and the general embraced the duke. A provisional public administration was formed, including Dupont (de 1'Eure), Gen. Gerard, Baron Louis, and Guizot, the last two names being much commented upon on account; of their associations with the old dynasty. At the sitting of the chambers on Aug. 7 the con- stitution was modified, the forfeiture of the old dynasty pronounced, and a new one instituted, 219 out of 252 votes electing Louis Philippe as "king of the French." The peers approved the action of the deputies, notwithstanding the eloquent remonstrances of Chateaubriand. The solemn transfer of the crown took place on Aug. 9 in the Palais Bourbon, at a royal sitting of both chambers, when Louis Philippe made his entry to the sound of the Marseillaise and the noise of cannon fired at the Invalides, accepting the crown, and, amid the cries of Vive le roi, swearing faithfully to observe the modified charter. One of his first acts was the nomination of Talleyrand as ambassador to London, which bound French diplomacy to the maintenance of the treaties of 1815 and the renunciation of the Kussian alliance, and laid the foundation for that between France and England. The first six years of his reign were spent in combating the legitimist, Bonapartist, and republican parties. The trial of the ex- ministers of Charles X. gave rise to serious dis- turbances, in appeasing which Lafayette com- promised his popularity and forfeited his coin- mandership of the national guard. Guizot, De Broglie, and their friends, the so-called doctri- naires, were dismissed, and Laffitte was placed at the head of the administration, Nov. 3, 1830. Universal suffrage was rejected, but a new elec- toral law was passed, which became the basis of what Guizot called the middle-class tory party. The leader of this party, Casimir Perier, suc- ceeded Laffitte, March 13, 1831, and remained prime minister until his death in May, 1832. Poland was left to her fate, and after the oc- cupation of her capital by the Russians, the announcement that " order reigns in Warsaw " was made in the chamber by Count Sebastiani. Paris became the scene of an insurrection du- ring the funeral of Gen. Lamarque in June, 1832. This having been put down by force of arms, a new administration was formed by Soult, Oct. 11, 1832, including De Broglie, Guizot, and Thiers, which, with some modi- fications, continued in power until Feb. 22, 1836. In home affairs it steered between the extremes of parties, and in foreign affairs pur- sued a peaceful policy. Yet, King Leopold of Belgium having married the princess Louise, daughter of Louis Philippe, a French army under Gerard crossed the Belgian frontier in his interest, and after an obstinate siege con- quered the citadel of Antwerp (December, 1832). In Italy the influence of Austria was counterbalanced by the occupation of Ancona (February, 1832). A quadruple alliance be- tween France, England, Spain, and Portugal was signed in 1834. A new system of primary education was introduced, savings banks were established, and other kindred measures passed ; but the revolutionary spirit, although curbed, was not crushed, and Louis Philippe's situa- tion was surrounded with great perils, as at- tested by the bloody insurrections at Lyons (1831 and 1834), Grenoble, and Paris (1834), republican conspiracies by the elder Cavaignac, Marrast, and others, the attempted insurrection