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308 MAZZINI other wing of the revolutionists, under Ra- raorino, was to advance from Les Echelles to unite at Chambery, and to organize from that place military operations against Piedmont. The attack was made Feb. 1, 1834, at the fron- tier of Savoy, upon a few custom-house offi- cers ; the custom house was destroyed, and the insurgents advanced to the village of Anne- masse, where a proclamation signed by Maz- zini, Melegari, and Jacopo Ruffini, announced the formation of a provisional government at St. Julien ; but it had no effect except to afford opportunities of smuggling during the confu- sion. The enterprise failed entirely. Sentence of death in contumaciam was passed by the Sardinian courts upon Mazzini, who however remained unmolested in Switzerland. Many of those implicated in the Savoy expedition were expelled from Switzerland, particularly the Polish refugees. But before their depar- ture Mazzini obtained the cooperation of the principal representatives of the various na- tionalities in the organization of a new asso- ciation to be called Young Europe. " Young Italy," "Young Poland," &c., appointed dele- gates, who on April 15, 1834, solemnly agreed to abide by the political, social, and religious platform which was laid down by Mazzini. The main object of Young Europe, according to Mazzini, was to lay the foundation for a universal development of thought and action, which would lead to the discovery and prac- tical application of the divine laws of human government, Mazzini defined the league as the young Europe of the people, which was to supplant the old Europe of kings ; as a con- flict between the modern principles of freedom and the medieval system of servitude, between the modern sentiments of equality and the old spirit of caste, monopoly, and privileges ; and as a triumph of new religious aspirations and ideas over a decaying ecclesiasticism. The so- cial application of Mazzini's principles is fully explained in his work, Foi et avenir (Bienne, 1835). Dissensions between Mazzini and the "Young Switzerland" (in whose interest a journal of that name had been published at Bi- enne chiefly under his influence) and " Young Germany " parties led him to withdraw from the central committee of Young Europe, and also of the Young Italy league, but without re- laxing his zeal for the furtherance of the ends of both of these associations, of which he con- tinued the principal leader. With the excep- tion of a brief term of arrest in 1835, Maz- zini was not interrupted in his agitation in Switzerland till 1837, when the Swiss author- ities requested him to leave, and he went to London. His numerous partisans and friends continued the secret political agitation of It- aly, while Mazzini labored by writing and by public addresses in the meetings of the Poles, Italians, or other oppressed nationalities in London. He wrote articles for various peri- odicals, among which are papers on Byron and Goethe, George Sand, Victor Hugo and Lamar- tine, Thiers and Carlyle, on Fourierism and communism, and on Italian and German music. Besides publications, in journals and in pam- phlets, on the political condition of Italy and other European states, he wrote in behalf of a comprehensive system of popular education, in the Italian journal Apostolato Popolare, which he published in London from 1840 to 1843. In 1842 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Dante's Divina Commedia, and prepared a com- plete edition of the works of Ugo Foscolo. He founded in London in 1840 a Sunday school for poor Italian children, and officiated as one of the teachers. The tragic fate of the brothers Bandiera called public attention to Mazzini in 1844, he being considered as the inspiring spirit who had led those men to make the daring at- tempt upon the Austrian fleet which cost them their lives, although Mazzini had in reality op- posed that particular movement. At the same time the English home secretary, Sir James Graham, was detected in having intercepted and opened letters addressed to Mazzini, which led to the discovery and suppression of the Ban- diera conspiracy. There was a general cry of indignation against this violation of the post office, and the proceedings which the despotic powers wished the English government to in- stitute against the Italian refugees fell to the ground. After protesting in 1846 against the enlistment of Swiss soldiers for the papal army, and against the annihilation of the republic of Cracow, he founded in 1847 an " international league of peoples," the principal object of which was to enlighten the people of England upon foreign politics, and to diffuse principles of self-government among the nations of Europe. At the end of 1847 he went to Paris to con- fer with other leaders in regard to the grow- ing revolutionary feeling in Italy, but soon returned to London, where the revolution of February, 1848, took him by surprise. He re- turned at once to Paris, where he had an inter- view with Gioberti, Mamiani, and other leaders of the constitutional party. Mazzini was op- posed to the annexation of the smaller Italian states to Sardinia, which was eventually pro- posed by the others. In March he issued an address to the people of Lombardy, congratu- lating them upon the success of their revolu- tion, and soon returned to Italy, after an exile of 17 years. But his exertions in behalf of national independence were neutralized by the vacillating rival policy of Charles Albert, who had begun his campaign against the Austrians. After being foiled in Milan, and endeavoring in vain to raise the standard of revolution in other parts of Italy, Mazzini offered to enlist as a common soldier under Garibaldi, whose vanguard was on the point of advancing from Monza to Bergamo, when the capitulation of Milan to the Austrians (Aug. 5) led to the dis- bandment of the patriots, and Mazzini took ref- uge in Switzerland. Shortly after his arrival there, the news of the rising in Tuscany was received, together with the continued resistance